1
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Brandner S. Rodent models of tumours of the central nervous system. Mol Oncol 2024. [PMID: 39324445 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.13729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 08/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Modelling of human diseases is an essential component of biomedical research, to understand their pathogenesis and ultimately, develop therapeutic approaches. Here, we will describe models of tumours of the central nervous system, with focus on intrinsic CNS tumours. Model systems for brain tumours were established as early as the 1920s, using chemical carcinogenesis, and a systematic analysis of different carcinogens, with a more refined histological analysis followed in the 1950s and 1960s. Alternative approaches at the time used retroviral carcinogenesis, allowing a more topical, organ-centred delivery. Most of the neoplasms arising from this approach were high-grade gliomas. Whilst these experimental approaches did not directly demonstrate a cell of origin, the localisation and growth pattern of the tumours already pointed to an origin in the neurogenic zones of the brain. In the 1980s, expression of oncogenes in transgenic models allowed a more targeted approach by expressing the transgene under tissue-specific promoters, whilst the constitutive inactivation of tumour suppressor genes ('knock out')-often resulted in embryonic lethality. This limitation was elegantly solved by engineering the Cre-lox system, allowing for a promoter-specific, and often also time-controlled gene inactivation. More recently, the use of the CRISPR Cas9 technology has significantly increased experimental flexibility of gene expression or gene inactivation and thus added increased value of rodent models for the study of pathogenesis and establishing preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Brandner
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Division of Neuropathology, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals, NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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2
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Lee DK, Li SW, Bounni F, Friedman G, Jamali M, Strahs L, Zelinger O, Gabrieli P, Stankovich MA, Demaree J, Williams ZM. Reduced sociability and social agency encoding in adult Shank3-mutant mice are restored through gene re-expression in real time. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:1243-1255. [PMID: 34253921 PMCID: PMC8410666 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-021-00888-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Despite a growing understanding of the molecular and developmental basis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), how the neuronal encoding of social information is disrupted in ASD and whether it contributes to abnormal social behavior remains unclear. Here, we disrupted and then restored expression of the ASD-associated gene Shank3 in adult male mice while tracking the encoding dynamics of neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) over weeks. We find that Shank3 disruption led to a reduction of neurons encoding the experience of other mice and an increase in neurons encoding the animal's own experience. This shift was associated with a loss of ability by neurons to distinguish other from self and, therefore, the inability to encode social agency. Restoration of Shank3 expression in the mPFC reversed this encoding imbalance and increased sociability over 5-8 weeks. These findings reveal a neuronal-encoding process that is necessary for social behavior and that may be disrupted in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel K Lee
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Boston MA,Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | - S William Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston MA
| | - Firas Bounni
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | - Gabriel Friedman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | - Mohsen Jamali
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | | | | | | | - Michael A Stankovich
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | | | - Ziv M Williams
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Boston MA,Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA,Harvard Medical School, Program in Neuroscience, Boston MA,Correspondence should be made to -
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3
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Activation of creER recombinase in the mouse calvaria induces local recombination without effects on distant skeletal segments. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8214. [PMID: 33859263 PMCID: PMC8050205 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87611-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Conditional creER-mediated gene inactivation or gene induction has emerged as a robust tool for studying gene functions in mouse models of tissue development, homeostasis, and regeneration. Here, we present a method to conditionally induce cre recombination in the mouse calvarial bone while avoiding systemic recombination in distal bones. To test our method, we utilized Prx1creER-egfp;td-Tomato mice and delivered 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT) to the mouse calvaria, subperiosteally. First, we showed that two calvaria subperiosteal injections of 10 µg of 4-OHT (3.3 mg of 4-OHT/kg of body weight) can induce local recombination as efficiently as two intraperitoneal systemic injections of 200 μg of tamoxifen (70 mg of tamoxifen/kg of body weight). Then, we studied the recombination efficiency of various subperiosteal calvaria dosages and found that two subperiosteal injections of 5 µg 4-OHT (1.65 mg of 4-OHT/kg of body weight) uphold the same recombination efficiency observed with higher dosages. Importantly, the result indicated that the low dosage does not induce significant systemic recombination in remote skeletal tissues. With the proposed local low dosage protocol, the recombination efficiency at the injection site (calvarial bone) reached 94%, while the recombination efficiency at the mandible and the digits was as low as the efficiency measured in control animals.
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4
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Lee MJ, Jang Y, Han J, Kim SJ, Ju X, Lee YL, Cui J, Zhu J, Ryu MJ, Choi SY, Chung W, Heo C, Yi HS, Kim HJ, Huh YH, Chung SK, Shong M, Kweon GR, Heo JY. Endothelial-specific Crif1 deletion induces BBB maturation and disruption via the alteration of actin dynamics by impaired mitochondrial respiration. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2020; 40:1546-1561. [PMID: 31987007 PMCID: PMC7308523 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x19900030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral endothelial cells (ECs) require junctional proteins to maintain blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, restricting toxic substances and controlling peripheral immune cells with a higher concentration of mitochondria than ECs of peripheral capillaries. The mechanism underlying BBB disruption by defective mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) is unclear in a mitochondria-related gene-targeted animal model. To assess the role of EC mitochondrial OxPhos function in the maintenance of the BBB, we developed an EC-specific CR6-interactin factor1 (Crif1) deletion mouse. We clearly observed defects in motor behavior, uncompacted myelin and leukocyte infiltration caused by BBB maturation and disruption in this mice. Furthermore, we investigated the alteration in the actin cytoskeleton, which interacts with junctional proteins to support BBB integrity. Loss of Crif1 led to reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and a decrease in tight junction-associated protein expression through an ATP production defect in vitro and in vivo. Based on these results, we suggest that mitochondrial OxPhos is important for the maturation and maintenance of BBB integrity by supplying ATP to cerebral ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Joung Lee
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunseon Jang
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeongsu Han
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo J Kim
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Xianshu Ju
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Lim Lee
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jianchen Cui
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiebo Zhu
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Jeong Ryu
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Song-Yi Choi
- Department of Pathology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Woosuk Chung
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Anesthesiology and Pain medicine, Chungnam National University Hospital, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chaejeong Heo
- Center for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Suwon, South Korea.,Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research (CNIR), Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Suwon, South Korea
| | - Hyon-Seung Yi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chungnam National University Hospital, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chungnam National University Hospital, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yang H Huh
- Electron Microscopy Research Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Chungcheongbukdo, Republic of Korea
| | - Sookja K Chung
- Medical Faculty at Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
| | - Minho Shong
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chungnam National University Hospital, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Research Center for Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Gi-Ryang Kweon
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Young Heo
- Department of Medical Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,Infection Control Convergence Research Center, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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5
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Kery R, Chen APF, Kirschen GW. Genetic targeting of astrocytes to combat neurodegenerative disease. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:199-211. [PMID: 31552885 PMCID: PMC6905329 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.265541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes, glial cells that interact extensively with neurons and other support cells throughout the central nervous system, have recently come under the spotlight for their potential contribution to, or potential regenerative role in a host of neurodegenerative disorders. It is becoming increasingly clear that astrocytes, in concert with microglial cells, activate intrinsic immunological pathways in the setting of neurodegenerative injury, although the direct and indirect consequences of such activation are still largely unknown. We review the current literature on the astrocyte’s role in several neurodegenerative diseases, as well as highlighting recent advances in genetic manipulation of astrocytes that may prove critical to modulating their response to neurological injury, potentially combatting neurodegenerative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Kery
- Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Stony Brook Medicine; Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Allen P F Chen
- Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Stony Brook Medicine; Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Gregory W Kirschen
- Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP), Stony Brook Medicine, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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6
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Zhang Y, Pusch S, Innes J, Sidlauskas K, Ellis M, Lau J, El-Hassan T, Aley N, Launchbury F, Richard-Loendt A, deBoer J, Chen S, Wang L, von Deimling A, Li N, Brandner S. Mutant IDH Sensitizes Gliomas to Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Triggers Apoptosis via miR-183-Mediated Inhibition of Semaphorin 3E. Cancer Res 2019; 79:4994-5007. [PMID: 31391185 PMCID: PMC7611309 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-19-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 06/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Human astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas are defined by mutations of the metabolic enzymes isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) 1 or 2, resulting in the production of the abnormal metabolite D-2 hydroxyglutarate. Here, we studied the effect of mutant IDH on cell proliferation and apoptosis in a glioma mouse model. Tumors were generated by inactivating Pten and p53 in forebrain progenitors and compared with tumors additionally expressing the Idh1 R132H mutation. Idh-mutant cells proliferated less in vitro and mice with Idh-mutant tumors survived significantly longer compared with Idh-wildtype mice. Comparison of miRNA and RNA expression profiles of Idh-wildtype and Idh-mutant cells and tumors revealed miR-183 was significantly upregulated in IDH-mutant cells. Idh-mutant cells were more sensitive to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, resulting in increased apoptosis and thus reduced cell proliferation and survival. This was mediated by the interaction of miR-183 with the 5' untranslated region of semaphorin 3E, downregulating its function as an apoptosis suppressor. In conclusion, we show that mutant Idh1 delays tumorigenesis and sensitizes tumor cells to ER stress and apoptosis. This may open opportunities for drug treatments targeting the miR-183-semaphorin axis. SIGNIFICANCE: The pathologic metabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate, generated by IDH-mutant astrocytomas, sensitizes tumor cells to ER stress and delays tumorigenesis. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/79/19/4994/F1.large.jpg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Pusch
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Heidelberg and Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - James Innes
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kastytis Sidlauskas
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Ellis
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joanne Lau
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tedani El-Hassan
- Division of Neuropathology, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Natasha Aley
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Launchbury
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
- UCL IQPath Laboratory, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Richard-Loendt
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
- UCL IQPath Laboratory, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jasper deBoer
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Lei Wang
- CapitalBio Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Andreas von Deimling
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Heidelberg and Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ningning Li
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom.
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Sebastian Brandner
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom.
- Division of Neuropathology, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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7
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FBX8 degrades GSTP1 through ubiquitination to suppress colorectal cancer progression. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:351. [PMID: 31024008 PMCID: PMC6484082 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1588-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 12/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
F-box only protein 8 (FBX8), as a critical component of the SKP1-CUL1-F-box (SCF) E3 ubiquitin ligases, has been associated with several malignancies through interacting with a member of proteins. However, the substrates of FBX8 for destruction in the progression of colorectal carcinoma (CRC) need to be explored. Here, we show that loss of FBX8 accelerates chemical-induced colon tumorigenesis. FBX8 directly targets GSTP1 for ubiquitin-mediated proteasome degradation in CRC. GSTP1 promotes the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of CRC cells. Furthermore, GSTP1 is upregulated in CRC tissue samples and predicts poor prognosis of CRC patients. The inactivation of FBX8 negatively correlated with increased levels and stability of GSTP1 in clinical CRC tissues and FBX8 knockout transgenic mice. These findings identify a novel ubiquitination pathway as FBX8-GSTP1 axis that regulates the progression of CRC, which might be a potential prognostic biomarker for CRC patients.
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8
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Abstract
Spinal projection neurons convey nociceptive signals to multiple brain regions including the parabrachial (PB) nucleus, which contributes to the emotional valence of pain perception. Despite the clear importance of projection neurons to pain processing, our understanding of the factors that shape their intrinsic membrane excitability remains limited. Here, we investigate a potential role for the Na leak channel NALCN in regulating the activity of spino-PB neurons in the developing rodent. Pharmacological reduction of NALCN current (INALCN), or the genetic deletion of NALCN channels, significantly reduced the intrinsic excitability of lamina I spino-PB neurons. In addition, substance P (SP) activated INALCN in ascending projection neurons through downstream Src kinase signaling, and the knockout of NALCN prevented SP-evoked action potential discharge in this neuronal population. These results identify, for the first time, NALCN as a strong regulator of neuronal activity within central pain circuits and also elucidate an additional ionic mechanism by which SP can modulate spinal nociceptive processing. Collectively, these findings indicate that the level of NALCN conductance within spino-PB neurons tightly governs ascending nociceptive transmission to the brain and thereby potentially influences pain perception.
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9
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Jahn HM, Kasakow CV, Helfer A, Michely J, Verkhratsky A, Maurer HH, Scheller A, Kirchhoff F. Refined protocols of tamoxifen injection for inducible DNA recombination in mouse astroglia. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5913. [PMID: 29651133 PMCID: PMC5897555 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24085-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Inducible DNA recombination of floxed alleles in vivo by liver metabolites of tamoxifen (TAM) is an important tool to study gene functions. Here, we describe protocols for optimal DNA recombination in astrocytes, based on the GLAST-CreERT2/loxP system. In addition, we demonstrate that quantification of genomic recombination allows to determine the proportion of cell types in various brain regions. We analyzed the presence and clearance of TAM and its metabolites (N-desmethyl-tamoxifen, 4-hydroxytamoxifen and endoxifen) in brain and serum of mice by liquid chromatographic-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS) and assessed optimal injection protocols by quantitative RT-PCR of several floxed target genes (p2ry1, gria1, gabbr1 and Rosa26-tdTomato locus). Maximal recombination could be achieved in cortex and cerebellum by single daily injections for five and three consecutive days, respectively. Furthermore, quantifying the loss of floxed alleles predicted the percentage of GLAST-positive cells (astroglia) per brain region. We found that astrocytes contributed 20 to 30% of the total cell number in cortex, hippocampus, brainstem and optic nerve, while in the cerebellum Bergmann glia, velate astrocytes and white matter astrocytes accounted only for 8% of all cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Jahn
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University Hospital of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Carmen V Kasakow
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Helfer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Julian Michely
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Anja Scheller
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg, Germany.
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