1
|
Vitienes I, Mikolajewicz N, Hosseinitabatabaei S, Bouchard A, Julien C, Graceffa G, Rentsch A, Widowski T, Main RP, Willie BM. Breed and loading history influence in vivo skeletal strain patterns in pre-pubertal female chickens. Bone 2023; 173:116785. [PMID: 37146896 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2023.116785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The influence of loading history on in vivo strains within a given specie remains poorly understood, and although in vivo strains have been measured at the hindlimb bones of various species, strains engendered during modes of activity other than locomotion are lacking, particularly in non-human species. For commercial egg-laying chickens specifically, there is an interest in understanding their bones' mechanical behaviour, particularly during youth, to develop early interventions to prevent the high incidence of osteoporosis in this population. We measured in vivo mechanical strains at the tibiotarsus midshaft during steady activities (ground, uphill, downhill locomotion) and non-steady activities (perching, jumping, aerial transition landing) in 48 pre-pubescent female (egg-laying) chickens from two breeds that were reared in three different housing systems, allowing varying amounts and types of physical activity. Mechanical strain patterns differed between breeds, and were dependent on the activity performed. Mechanical strains were also affected by rearing environment: chickens that were restricted from performing dynamic load bearing activity due to caged-housing generally exhibited higher mechanical strain levels during steady, but not non-steady activities, compared to chickens with prior dynamic load-bearing activity experience. Among chickens with prior experience of dynamic load bearing activity, those reared in housing systems that allowed more frequent physical activity did not exhibit lower mechanical strains. In all groups, the tibiotarsus was subjected to a loading environment consisting of a combination of axial compression, bending, and torsion, with torsion being the predominant source of strain. Aerial transition landing produced the highest strain levels with unusual strain patterns compared to other activities, suggesting it may produce the strongest anabolic response. These results exemplify how different breeds within a given specie adapt to maintain different patterns of mechanical strains, and how benefits of physical activity in terms of resistance to strain are activity-type dependent and do not necessarily increase with increased physical activity. These findings directly inform controlled loading experiments aimed at studying the bone mechanoresponse in young female chickens and can also be associated to measures of bone morphology and material properties to understand how these features influence bone mechanical properties in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabela Vitienes
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Seyedmahdi Hosseinitabatabaei
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Alice Bouchard
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Catherine Julien
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Gabrielle Graceffa
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Ana Rentsch
- Department of Animal Bioscience, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Tina Widowski
- Department of Animal Bioscience, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Russell P Main
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, Indiana, USA; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, Indiana, USA
| | - Bettina M Willie
- Research Centre, Shriners Hospital for Children-Canada, Montreal, Canada; Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; Faculty of Dental Medicine and Oral Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Demuth OE, Wiseman ALA, Hutchinson JR. Quantitative biomechanical assessment of locomotor capabilities of the stem archosaur Euparkeria capensis. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221195. [PMID: 36704253 PMCID: PMC9874271 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Birds and crocodylians are the only remaining members of Archosauria (ruling reptiles) and they exhibit major differences in posture and gait, which are polar opposites in terms of locomotor strategies. Their broader lineages (Avemetatarsalia and Pseudosuchia) evolved a multitude of locomotor modes in the Triassic and Jurassic periods, including several occurrences of bipedalism. The exact timings and frequencies of bipedal origins within archosaurs, and thus their ancestral capabilities, are contentious. It is often suggested that archosaurs ancestrally exhibited some form of bipedalism. Euparkeria capensis is a central taxon for the investigation of locomotion in archosaurs due to its phylogenetic position and intermediate skeletal morphology, and is argued to be representative of facultative bipedalism in this group. However, no studies to date have biomechanically tested if bipedality was feasible in Eupakeria. Here, we use musculoskeletal models and static simulations in its hindlimb to test the influences of body posture and muscle parameter estimation methods on locomotor potential. Our analyses show that the resulting negative pitching moments around the centre of mass were prohibitive to sustainable bipedality. We conclude that it is unlikely that Euparkeria was facultatively bipedal, and was probably quadrupedal, rendering the inference of ancestral bipedal abilities in Archosauria unlikely.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver E. Demuth
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ashleigh L. A. Wiseman
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Krahl A, Lipphaus A, Sander PM, Witzel U. Determination of muscle strength and function in plesiosaur limbs: finite element structural analyses of Cryptoclidus eurymerus humerus and femur. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13342. [PMID: 35677394 PMCID: PMC9169670 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The Plesiosauria (Sauropterygia) are secondary marine diapsids. They are the only tetrapods to have evolved hydrofoil fore- and hindflippers. Once this specialization of locomotion had evolved, it remained essentially unchanged for 135 Ma. It is still controversial whether plesiosaurs flew underwater, rowed, or used a mixture of the two modes of locomotion. The long bones of Tetrapoda are functionally loaded by torsion, bending, compression, and tension during locomotion. Superposition of load cases shows that the bones are loaded mainly by compressive stresses. Therefore, it is possible to use finite element structure analysis (FESA) as a test environment for loading hypotheses. These include muscle reconstructions and muscle lines of action (LOA) when the goal is to obtain a homogeneous compressive stress distribution and to minimize bending in the model. Myological reconstruction revealed a muscle-powered flipper twisting mechanism. The flippers of plesiosaurs were twisted along the flipper length axis by extensors and flexors that originated from the humerus and femur as well as further distal locations. Methods To investigate locomotion in plesiosaurs, the humerus and femur of a mounted skeleton of Cryptoclidus eurymerus (Middle Jurassic Oxford Clay Formation from Britain) were analyzed using FE methods based on the concept of optimization of loading by compression. After limb muscle reconstructions including the flipper twisting muscles, LOA were derived for all humerus and femur muscles of Cryptoclidus by stretching cords along casts of the fore- and hindflippers of the mounted skeleton. LOA and muscle attachments were added to meshed volumetric models of the humerus and femur derived from micro-CT scans. Muscle forces were approximated by stochastic iteration and the compressive stress distribution for the two load cases, "downstroke" and "upstroke", for each bone were calculated by aiming at a homogeneous compressive stress distribution. Results Humeral and femoral depressors and retractors, which drive underwater flight rather than rowing, were found to exert higher muscle forces than the elevators and protractors. Furthermore, extensors and flexors exert high muscle forces compared to Cheloniidae. This confirms a convergently evolved myological mechanism of flipper twisting in plesiosaurs and complements hydrodynamic studies that showed flipper twisting is critical for efficient plesiosaur underwater flight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Krahl
- Institute of Geoscience, Section Paleontology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany,Biomechanics Research Group, Chair of Product Development, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany,Paleontological Collection Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Lipphaus
- Biomechanics Research Group, Chair of Product Development, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - P. Martin Sander
- Institute of Geoscience, Section Paleontology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ulrich Witzel
- Biomechanics Research Group, Chair of Product Development, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Brocklehurst RJ, Fahn-Lai P, Regnault S, Pierce SE. Musculoskeletal modeling of sprawling and parasagittal forelimbs provides insight into synapsid postural transition. iScience 2022; 25:103578. [PMID: 37609446 PMCID: PMC10441569 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The sprawling-parasagittal postural shift was a major transition during synapsid evolution, underpinned by reorganization of the forelimb, and considered key to mammalian ecological diversity. Determining when and how this transition occurred in the fossil record is challenging owing to limited comparative data on extant species. Here, we built forelimb musculoskeletal models of three extant taxa that bracket sprawling-parasagittal postures-tegu lizard, echidna, and opossum-and tested the relationship between three-dimensional joint mobility, muscle action, and posture. Results demonstrate clear functional variation between postural grades, with the parasagittal opossum occupying a distinct region of pose space characterized by a highly retracted and depressed shoulder joint that emphasizes versatility and humeral elevation. Applying our data to the fossil record support trends of an increasingly retracted humerus and greater elevation muscle moment arms indicative of more parasagittal postures throughout synapsid evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Brocklehurst
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01239, USA
| | - Philip Fahn-Lai
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01239, USA
- Concord Field Station and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Bedford, MA01730, USA
| | - Sophie Regnault
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01239, USA
- Institute of Biological, Environment & Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, CeredigionSY23 3DA, UK
| | - Stephanie E. Pierce
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01239, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cieri RL, Dick TJM, Irwin R, Rumsey D, Clemente CJ. The scaling of ground reaction forces and duty factor in monitor lizards: implications for locomotion in sprawling tetrapods. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20200612. [PMID: 33529545 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Geometric scaling predicts a major challenge for legged, terrestrial locomotion. Locomotor support requirements scale identically with body mass (α M1), while force-generation capacity should scale α M2/3 as it depends on muscle cross-sectional area. Mammals compensate with more upright limb postures at larger sizes, but it remains unknown how sprawling tetrapods deal with this challenge. Varanid lizards are an ideal group to address this question because they cover an enormous body size range while maintaining a similar bent-limb posture and body proportions. This study reports the scaling of ground reaction forces and duty factor for varanid lizards ranging from 7 g to 37 kg. Impulses (force×time) (α M0.99-1.34) and peak forces (α M0.73-1.00) scaled higher than expected. Duty factor scaled α M0.04 and was higher for the hindlimb than the forelimb. The proportion of vertical impulse to total impulse increased with body size, and impulses decreased while peak forces increased with speed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Cieri
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland 4558, Australia
| | - Taylor J M Dick
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Robert Irwin
- The Australia Zoo, Beerwah, Queensland 4519, Australia
| | - Daniel Rumsey
- The Australian Reptile Park, Somersby, New South Wales 2250, Australia
| | - Christofer J Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland 4558, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fahn-Lai P, Biewener AA, Pierce SE. Broad similarities in shoulder muscle architecture and organization across two amniotes: implications for reconstructing non-mammalian synapsids. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8556. [PMID: 32117627 PMCID: PMC7034385 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of upright limb posture in mammals may have enabled modifications of the forelimb for diverse locomotor ecologies. A rich fossil record of non-mammalian synapsids holds the key to unraveling the transition from "sprawling" to "erect" limb function in the precursors to mammals, but a detailed understanding of muscle functional anatomy is a necessary prerequisite to reconstructing postural evolution in fossils. Here we characterize the gross morphology and internal architecture of muscles crossing the shoulder joint in two morphologically-conservative extant amniotes that form a phylogenetic and morpho-functional bracket for non-mammalian synapsids: the Argentine black and white tegu Salvator merianae and the Virginia opossum Didelphis virginiana. By combining traditional physical dissection of cadavers with nondestructive three-dimensional digital dissection, we find striking similarities in muscle organization and architectural parameters. Despite the wide phylogenetic gap between our study species, distal muscle attachments are notably similar, while differences in proximal muscle attachments are driven by modifications to the skeletal anatomy of the pectoral girdle that are well-documented in transitional synapsid fossils. Further, correlates for force production, physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), muscle gearing (pennation), and working range (fascicle length) are statistically indistinguishable for an unexpected number of muscles. Functional tradeoffs between force production and working range reveal muscle specializations that may facilitate increased girdle mobility, weight support, and active stabilization of the shoulder in the opossum-a possible signal of postural transformation. Together, these results create a foundation for reconstructing the musculoskeletal anatomy of the non-mammalian synapsid pectoral girdle with greater confidence, as we demonstrate by inferring shoulder muscle PCSAs in the fossil non-mammalian cynodont Massetognathus pascuali.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philip Fahn-Lai
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Concord Field Station and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Andrew A. Biewener
- Concord Field Station and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Stephanie E. Pierce
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Granatosky MC, McElroy EJ, Lemelin P, Reilly SM, Nyakatura JA, Andrada E, Kilbourne BM, Allen VR, Butcher MT, Blob RW, Ross CF. Variation in limb loading magnitude and timing in tetrapods. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 223:jeb.201525. [PMID: 31776184 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.201525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Comparative analyses of locomotion in tetrapods reveal two patterns of stride cycle variability. Tachymetabolic tetrapods (birds and mammals) have lower inter-cycle variation in stride duration than bradymetabolic tetrapods (amphibians, lizards, turtles and crocodilians). This pattern has been linked to the fact that birds and mammals share enlarged cerebella, relatively enlarged and heavily myelinated Ia afferents, and γ-motoneurons to their muscle spindles. Both tachymetabolic tetrapod lineages also possess an encapsulated Golgi tendon morphology, thought to provide more spatially precise information on muscle tension. The functional consequence of this derived Golgi tendon morphology has never been tested. We hypothesized that one advantage of precise information on muscle tension would be lower and more predictable limb bone stresses, achieved in tachymetabolic tetrapods by having less variable substrate reaction forces than bradymetabolic tetrapods. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed hindlimb substrate reaction forces during locomotion of 55 tetrapod species in a phylogenetic comparative framework. Variation in species means of limb loading magnitude and timing confirm that, for most of the variables analyzed, variance in hindlimb loading and timing is significantly lower in species with encapsulated versus unencapsulated Golgi tendon organs. These findings suggest that maintaining predictable limb loading provides a selective advantage for birds and mammals by allowing energy savings during locomotion, lower limb bone safety factors and quicker recovery from perturbations. The importance of variation in other biomechanical variables in explaining these patterns, such as posture, effective mechanical advantage and center-of-mass mechanics, remains to be clarified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Eric J McElroy
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC 29424, USA
| | - Pierre Lemelin
- Division of Anatomy, Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 2H7
| | - Stephen M Reilly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH 43210, USA
| | - John A Nyakatura
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Emanuel Andrada
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Brandon M Kilbourne
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Vivian R Allen
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Michael T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH 44555, USA
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA
| | - Callum F Ross
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Krahl A, Lipphaus A, Sander MP, Maffucci F, Hochscheid S, Witzel U. Humerus osteology, myology, and finite element structure analysis of Cheloniidae. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 303:2177-2191. [PMID: 31674155 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Adaptation of osteology and myology lead to the formation of hydrofoil foreflippers in Cheloniidae (all recent sea turtles except Dermochelys coriacea) which are used mainly for underwater flight. Recent research shows the biomechanical advantages of a complex system of agonistic and antagonistic tension chords that reduce bending stress in bones. Finite element structure analysis (FESA) of a cheloniid humerus is used to provide a better understanding of morphology and microanatomy and to link these with the main flipper function, underwater flight. Dissection of a Caretta caretta gave insights into lines of action, that is, the course that a muscle takes between its origin and insertion, of foreflipper musculature. Lines of action were determined by spanning physical threads on a skeleton of Chelonia mydas. The right humerus of this skeleton was micro-CT scanned. Based on the scans, a finite element (FE) model was built and muscle force vectors were entered. Muscle forces were iteratively approximated until a uniform compressive stress distribution was attained. Two load cases, downstroke and upstroke, were computed. We found that muscle wrappings (m. coracobrachialis magnus and brevis, several extensors, humeral head of m. triceps) are crucial in addition to axial loading to obtain homogenous compressive loading in all bone cross-sections. Detailed knowledge on muscle disposition leads to compressive stress distribution in the FE model which corresponds with the bone microstructure. The FE analysis of the cheloniid humerus shows that bone may be loaded mainly by compression if the bending moments are minimized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Krahl
- Biomechanics Research Group, Lehrstuhl für Produktentwicklung, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Andreas Lipphaus
- Biomechanics Research Group, Lehrstuhl für Produktentwicklung, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Martin P Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of Paleontology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Fulvio Maffucci
- Research Infrastructures for Marine Biological Resources, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | - Sandra Hochscheid
- Marine Turtle Research Center, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Portici, Italy
| | - Ulrich Witzel
- Biomechanics Research Group, Lehrstuhl für Produktentwicklung, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Clemente CJ, Wu NC. Body and tail-assisted pitch control facilitates bipedal locomotion in Australian agamid lizards. J R Soc Interface 2018; 15:20180276. [PMID: 30257922 PMCID: PMC6170770 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Certain lizards are known to run bipedally. Modelling studies suggest bipedalism in lizards may be a consequence of a caudal shift in the body centre of mass, combined with quick bursts of acceleration, causing a torque moment at the hip lifting the front of the body. However, some lizards appear to run bipedally sooner and for longer than expected from these models, suggesting positive selection for bipedal locomotion. While differences in morphology may contribute to bipedal locomotion, changes in kinematic variables may also contribute to extended bipedal sequences, such as changes to the body orientation, tail lifting and changes to the ground reaction force profile. We examined these mechanisms among eight Australian agamid lizards. Our analysis revealed that angular acceleration of the trunk about the hip, and of the tail about the hip were both important predictors of extended bipedal running, along with increased temporal asymmetry of the ground reaction force profile. These results highlight important dynamic movements during locomotion, which may not only stabilize bipedal strides, but also to de-stabilize quadrupedal strides in agamid lizards, in order to temporarily switch to, and extend a bipedal sequence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christofer J Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Nicholas C Wu
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Young VKH, Wienands CE, Wilburn BP, Blob RW. Humeral loads during swimming and walking in turtles: implications for morphological change during aquatic reinvasions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:3873-3877. [PMID: 28883088 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.156836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
During evolutionary reinvasions of water by terrestrial vertebrates, ancestrally tubular limb bones often flatten to form flippers. Differences in skeletal loading between land and water might have facilitated such changes. In turtles, femoral shear strains are significantly lower during swimming than during walking, potentially allowing a release from loads favoring tubular shafts. However, flipper-like morphology in specialized tetrapod swimmers is most accentuated in the forelimbs. To test whether the forelimbs of turtles also experience reduced torsional loading in water, we compared strains on the humerus of river cooters (Pseudemys concinna) between swimming and terrestrial walking. We found that humeral shear strains are also lower during swimming than during terrestrial walking; however, this appears to relate to a reduction in overall strain magnitude, rather than a specific reduction in twisting. These results indicate that shear strains show similar reductions between swimming and walking for forelimb and hindlimb, but these reductions are produced through different mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa K H Young
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | | | - Brittany P Wilburn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Mayerl CJ, Brainerd EL, Blob RW. Pelvic girdle mobility of cryptodire and pleurodire turtles during walking and swimming. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 219:2650-8. [PMID: 27340204 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.141622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Movements of the pelvic girdle facilitate terrestrial locomotor performance in a wide range of vertebrates by increasing hind limb excursion and stride length. The extent to which pelvic movements contribute to limb excursion in turtles is unclear because the bony shell surrounding the body presents a major obstacle to their visualization. In the Cryptodira, which are one of the two major lineages of turtles, pelvic anatomy indicates the potential for rotation inside the shell. However, in the Pleurodira, the other major suborder, the pelvis shows a derived fusion to the shell, preventing pelvic motion. In addition, most turtles use their hind limbs for propulsion during swimming as well as walking, and the different locomotor demands between water and land could lead to differences in the contributions of pelvic rotation to limb excursion in each habitat. To test these possibilities, we used X-ray reconstruction of moving morphology (XROMM) to compare pelvic mobility and femoral motion during walking and swimming between representative species of cryptodire (Pseudemys concinna) and pleurodire (Emydura subglobosa) turtles. We found that the pelvis yawed substantially in cryptodires during walking and, to a lesser extent, during swimming. These movements contributed to greater femoral protraction during both walking and swimming in cryptodires when compared with pleurodires. Although factors related to the origin of pelvic-shell fusion in pleurodires are debated, its implications for their locomotor function may contribute to the restriction of this group to primarily aquatic habits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth L Brainerd
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Aiello BR, Iriarte-Diaz J, Blob RW, Butcher MT, Carrano MT, Espinoza NR, Main RP, Ross CF. Bone strain magnitude is correlated with bone strain rate in tetrapods: implications for models of mechanotransduction. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20150321. [PMID: 26063842 PMCID: PMC4590470 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypotheses suggest that structural integrity of vertebrate bones is maintained by controlling bone strain magnitude via adaptive modelling in response to mechanical stimuli. Increased tissue-level strain magnitude and rate have both been identified as potent stimuli leading to increased bone formation. Mechanotransduction models hypothesize that osteocytes sense bone deformation by detecting fluid flow-induced drag in the bone's lacunar-canalicular porosity. This model suggests that the osteocyte's intracellular response depends on fluid-flow rate, a product of bone strain rate and gradient, but does not provide a mechanism for detection of strain magnitude. Such a mechanism is necessary for bone modelling to adapt to loads, because strain magnitude is an important determinant of skeletal fracture. Using strain gauge data from the limb bones of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, we identified strong correlations between strain rate and magnitude across clades employing diverse locomotor styles and degrees of rhythmicity. The breadth of our sample suggests that this pattern is likely to be a common feature of tetrapod bone loading. Moreover, finding that bone strain magnitude is encoded in strain rate at the tissue level is consistent with the hypothesis that it might be encoded in fluid-flow rate at the cellular level, facilitating bone adaptation via mechanotransduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B R Aiello
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - J Iriarte-Diaz
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - R W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - M T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH 44555, USA
| | - M T Carrano
- Department of Paleobiology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
| | - N R Espinoza
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - R P Main
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - C F Ross
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Copploe JV, Blob RW, Parrish JHA, Butcher MT. In vivo strains in the femur of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus). J Morphol 2015; 276:889-99. [PMID: 25809577 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of limb bones to resist the locomotor loads they encounter depends on both the pattern of those loads and the material properties of the skeletal elements. Among mammals, understanding of the interplay between these two factors has been based primarily on evidence from locomotor behaviors in upright placentals, which show limb bones that are loaded predominantly in anteroposterior bending with minimal amounts of torsion. However, loading patterns from the femora of opossums, marsupials using crouched limb posture, show appreciable torsion while the bone experiences mediolateral (ML) bending. These data indicated greater loading diversity in mammals than was previously recognized, and suggested the possibility that ancestral loading patterns found in sprawling lineages (e.g., reptilian sauropsids) might have been retained among basal mammals. To further test this hypothesis, we recorded in vivo locomotor strains from the femur of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), a member of the basal xenarthran clade of placental mammals that also uses crouched limb posture. Orientations of principal strains and magnitudes of shear strains indicate that armadillo femora are exposed to only limited torsion; however, bending is essentially ML, placing the medial aspect of the femur in compression and the lateral aspect in tension. This orientation of bending is similar to that found in opossums, but planar strain analyses indicate much more of the armadillo femur experiences tension during bending, potentially due to muscles pulling on the large, laterally positioned third trochanter. Limb bone safety factors were estimated between 3.3 and 4.3 in bending, similar to other placental mammals, but lower than opossums and most sprawling taxa. Thus, femoral loading patterns in armadillos show a mixture of similarities to both opossums (ML bending) and other placentals (limited torsion and low safety factors), along with unique features (high axial tension) that likely relate to their distinctive hindlimb anatomy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph V Copploe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
| | | | - Michael T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kawano SM, Economy DR, Kennedy MS, Dean D, Blob RW. Comparative limb bone loading in the humerus and femur of the tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum: testing the ‘mixed-chain’ hypothesis for skeletal safety factors. J Exp Biol 2015; 219:341-53. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.125799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Locomotion imposes some of the highest loads upon the skeleton, and diverse bone designs have evolved to withstand these demands. Excessive loads can fatally injure organisms; however, bones have a margin of extra protection, called a ‘safety factor’ (SF), to accommodate loads that are higher than normal. The extent to which SFs might vary amongst an animal's limb bones is unclear. If the limbs are likened to a chain composed of bones as ‘links’, then similar SFs might be expected for all limb bones because failure of the system would be determined by the weakest link, and extra protection in other links could waste energetic resources. However, Alexander proposed that a ‘mixed-chain’ of SFs might be found amongst bones if: 1) their energetic costs differ, 2) some elements face variable demands, or 3) SFs are generally high. To test if such conditions contribute to diversity in limb bone SFs, we compared the biomechanical properties and locomotor loading of the humerus and femur in the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). Despite high SFs in salamanders and similar sizes of the humerus and femur that would suggest similar energetic costs, the humerus had lower yield stresses, higher mechanical hardness, and larger SFs. SFs were greatest in the anatomical regions where yield stresses were highest in the humerus and lowest in the femur. Such intraspecific variation between and within bones may relate to their different biomechanical functions, providing insight into the emergence of novel locomotor capabilities during the invasion of land by tetrapods
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandy M. Kawano
- National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - D. Ross Economy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Marian S. Kennedy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Delphine Dean
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Richard W. Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Blob RW, Espinoza NR, Butcher MT, Lee AH, D'Amico AR, Baig F, Sheffield KM. Diversity of Limb-Bone Safety Factors for Locomotion in Terrestrial Vertebrates: Evolution and Mixed Chains. Integr Comp Biol 2014; 54:1058-71. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icu032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
|
16
|
Nyakatura JA, Andrada E, Curth S, Fischer MS. Bridging “Romer’s Gap”: Limb Mechanics of an Extant Belly-Dragging Lizard Inform Debate on Tetrapod Locomotion During the Early Carboniferous. Evol Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-013-9266-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
17
|
Aiello BR, Blob RW, Butcher MT. Correlation of muscle function and bone strain in the hindlimb of the river cooter turtle (Pseudemys concinna). J Morphol 2013; 274:1060-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brett R. Aiello
- Department of Biological Sciences; Youngstown State University; Youngstown; Ohio
| | - Richard W. Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences; Clemson University; Clemson; South Carolina
| | - Michael T. Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences; Youngstown State University; Youngstown; Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kawano SM, Blob RW. Propulsive Forces of Mudskipper Fins and Salamander Limbs during Terrestrial Locomotion: Implications for the Invasion of Land. Integr Comp Biol 2013; 53:283-94. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/ict051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
19
|
Van Wassenbergh S, Aerts P. In search of the pitching momentum that enables some lizards to sustain bipedal running at constant speeds. J R Soc Interface 2013; 10:20130241. [PMID: 23658116 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2013.0241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The forelimbs of lizards are often lifted from the ground when they start sprinting. Previous research pointed out that this is a consequence of the propulsive forces from the hindlimbs. However, despite forward acceleration being hypothesized as necessary to lift the head, trunk and forelimbs, some species of agamids, teiids and basilisks sustain running in a bipedal posture at a constant speed for a relatively long time. Biomechanical modelling of steady bipedal running in the agamid Ctenophorus cristatus now shows that a combination of three mechanisms must be present to generate the angular impulse needed to cancel or oppose the effect of gravity. First, the trunk must be lifted significantly to displace the centre of mass more towards the hip joint. Second, the nose-up pitching moment resulting from aerodynamic forces exerted at the lizard's surface must be taken into account. Third, the vertical ground-reaction forces at the hindlimb must show a certain degree of temporal asymmetry with higher forces closer to the instant of initial foot contact. Such asymmetrical vertical ground-reaction force profiles, which differ from the classical spring-mass model of bipedal running, seem inherent to the windmilling, splayed-legged running style of lizards.
Collapse
|
20
|
Butcher MT, White BJ, Hudzik NB, Gosnell WC, Parrish JHA, Blob RW. In vivo strains in the femur of the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) during terrestrial locomotion: testing hypotheses of evolutionary shifts in mammalian bone loading and design. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 214:2631-40. [PMID: 21753057 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.049544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Terrestrial locomotion can impose substantial loads on vertebrate limbs. Previous studies have shown that limb bones from cursorial species of eutherian mammals experience high bending loads with minimal torsion, whereas the limb bones of non-avian reptiles (and amphibians) exhibit considerable torsion in addition to bending. It has been hypothesized that these differences in loading regime are related to the difference in limb posture between upright mammals and sprawling reptiles, and that the loading patterns observed in non-avian reptiles may be ancestral for tetrapod vertebrates. To evaluate whether non-cursorial mammals show loading patterns more similar to those of sprawling lineages, we measured in vivo strains in the femur during terrestrial locomotion of the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), a marsupial that uses more crouched limb posture than most mammals from which bone strains have been recorded, and which belongs to a clade phylogenetically between reptiles and the eutherian mammals studied previously. The presence of substantial torsion in the femur of opossums, similar to non-avian reptiles, would suggest that this loading regime likely reflects an ancestral condition for tetrapod limb bone design. Strain recordings indicate the presence of both bending and appreciable torsion (shear strain: 419.1 ± 212.8 με) in the opossum femur, with planar strain analyses showing neutral axis orientations that placed the lateral aspect of the femur in tension at the time of peak strains. Such mediolateral bending was unexpected for a mammal running with near-parasagittal limb kinematics. Shear strains were similar in magnitude to peak compressive axial strains, with opossum femora experiencing similar bending loads but higher levels of torsion compared with most previously studied mammals. Analyses of peak femoral strains led to estimated safety factor ranges of 5.1-7.2 in bending and 5.5-7.3 in torsion, somewhat higher than typical mammalian values for bending, but approaching typical reptilian values for shear. Loading patterns of opossum limb bones therefore appear intermediate in some respects between those of eutherian mammals and non-avian reptiles, providing further support for hypotheses that high torsion and elevated limb bone safety factors may represent persistent ancestral conditions in the evolution of tetrapod limb bone loading and design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH 44555, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Gosnell WC, Butcher MT, Maie T, Blob RW. Femoral loading mechanics in the Virginia opossum, Didelphis virginiana: torsion and mediolateral bending in mammalian locomotion. J Exp Biol 2011; 214:3455-66. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.060178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Studies of limb bone loading in terrestrial mammals have typically found anteroposterior bending to be the primary loading regime, with torsion contributing minimally. However, previous studies have focused on large, cursorial eutherian species in which the limbs are held essentially upright. Recent in vivo strain data from the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), a marsupial that uses a crouched rather than an upright limb posture, have indicated that its femur experiences appreciable torsion during locomotion as well as strong mediolateral bending. The elevated femoral torsion and strong mediolateral bending observed in D. virginiana might result from external forces such as a medial inclination of the ground reaction force (GRF), internal forces deriving from a crouched limb posture, or a combination of these factors. To evaluate the mechanism underlying the loading regime of opossum femora, we filmed D. virginiana running over a force platform, allowing us to measure the magnitude of the GRF and its three-dimensional orientation relative to the limb, facilitating estimates of limb bone stresses. This three-dimensional analysis also allows evaluations of muscular forces, particularly those of hip adductor muscles, in the appropriate anatomical plane to a greater degree than previous two-dimensional analyses. At peak GRF and stress magnitudes, the GRF is oriented nearly vertically, inducing a strong abductor moment at the hip that is countered by adductor muscles on the medial aspect of the femur that place this surface in compression and induce mediolateral bending, corroborating and explaining loading patterns that were identified in strain analyses. The crouched orientation of the femur during stance in opossums also contributes to levels of femoral torsion as high as those seen in many reptilian taxa. Femoral safety factors were as high as those of non-avian reptiles and greater than those of upright, cursorial mammals, primarily because the load magnitudes experienced by opossums are lower than those of most mammals. Thus, the evolutionary transition from crouched to upright posture in mammalian ancestors may have been accompanied by an increase in limb bone load magnitudes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W. Casey Gosnell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Michael T. Butcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH 44555, USA
| | - Takashi Maie
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Richard W. Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| |
Collapse
|