Echolocating bats inspect and discriminate landmark features to guide navigation

Biomimetic detection of dynamic signatures in foliage echoes

Certain bat species (familyRhinolophidae) dynamically deform their emission baffles (noseleaves) and reception baffles (pinnae) during echolocation. Prior research using numerical models, laboratory characterizations, and experiments with simple targets have suggested that this dynamics may manifest itself in time-variant echo signatures. Since the pronounced random nature of echoes from natural targets such as foliage has not been reflected in these experiments, we have collected a large number (>55 000) of foliage echoes outdoors with a sonar head that mimics the dynamic periphery in bats. The echo data was processed with a custom auditory processing model to create spike-based echo representations. Deep-learning classifiers were able to estimate the dynamic state of the periphery, i.e., static or dynamic, based on single echoes with accuracies of up to 80%. This suggests that the effects of the peripheral dynamics are present in the bat brains and could hence be used by the animals. The best classification performances were obtained for data obtained within a spatially confined area. Hence, if the bat brains suffer from the same generalization issues, they would have to have a way to adapt their neural echo processing to such local fluctuations to exploit the dynamic effects successfully.

Effectiveness of time-varying echo information for target geometry identification in bat-inspired human echolocation

Bats use echolocation through flexible active sensing via ultrasounds to identify environments suitable for their habitat and foraging. Mimicking the sensing strategies of bats for echolocation, this study examined how humans acquire new acoustic-sensing abilities, and proposes effective strategies for humans. A target geometry identification experiment-involving 15 sighted people without experience of echolocation-was conducted using two targets with different geometries, based on a new sensing system. Broadband frequency-modulated pulses with short inter-pulse intervals (16 ms) were used as a synthetic echolocation signal. Such pulses mimic buzz signals emitted by bats for echolocation prior to capturing their prey. The study participants emitted the signal from a loudspeaker by tapping on Android devices. Because the signal included high-frequency signals up to 41 kHz, the emitted signal and echoes from a stationary or rotating target were recorded using a 1/7-scaled miniature dummy head. Binaural sounds, whose pitch was down-converted, were presented through headphones. This way, time-varying echo information was made available as an acoustic cue for target geometry identification under a rotating condition, as opposed to a stationary one. In both trials, with (i.e., training trials) and without (i.e., test trials) answer feedback immediately after the participants answered, the participants identified the geometries under the rotating condition. Majority of the participants reported using time-varying patterns in terms of echo intensity, timbre, and/or pitch under the rotating condition. The results suggest that using time-varying patterns in echo intensity, timbre, and/or pitch enables humans to identify target geometries. However, performance significantly differed by condition (i.e., stationary vs. rotating) only in the test trials. This difference suggests that time-varying echo information is effective for identifying target geometry through human echolocation especially when echolocators are unable to obtain answer feedback during sensing.

In situ novel environment assay reveals acoustic exploration as a repeatable behavioral response in migratory bats

Integrating information on species-specific sensory perception with spatial activity provides a high-resolution understanding of how animals explore environments, yet frequently used exploration assays commonly ignore sensory acquisition as a measure for exploration. Echolocation is an active sensing system used by hundreds of mammal species, primarily bats. As echolocation call activity can be reliably quantified, bats present an excellent model system to investigate intraspecific variation in environmental cue sampling. Here, we developed an in situ roost-like novel environment assay for tree-roosting bats. We repeatedly tested 52 individuals of the migratory bat species, Pipistrellus nathusii, across 24 h, to examine the role of echolocation when crawling through a maze-type arena and test for consistent intraspecific variation in sensory-based exploration. We reveal a strong correlation between echolocation call activity and spatial activity. Moreover, we show that during the exploration of the maze, individuals consistently differed in spatial activity as well as echolocation call activity, given their spatial activity, a behavioral response we term 'acoustic exploration'. Acoustic exploration was correlated with other exploratory behaviors, but not with emergence latency. We here present a relevant new measure for exploration behavior and provide evidence for consistent (short-term) intra-specific variation in the level at which wild bats collect information from a novel environment.

Navigating in a challenging semiarid environment: the use of a route-based mental map by a small-bodied neotropical primate

To increase efficiency in the search for resources, many animals rely on their spatial abilities. Specifically, primates have been reported to use mostly topological and rarely Euclidean maps when navigating in large-scale space. Here, we aimed to investigate if the navigation of wild common marmosets inhabiting a semiarid environment is consistent with a topological representation and how environmental factors affect navigation. We collected 497 h of direct behavioral and GPS information on a group of marmosets using a 2-min instantaneous focal animal sampling technique. We found that our study group reused not only long-route segments (mean of 1007 m) but entire daily routes, a pattern that is not commonly seen in primates. The most frequently reused route segments were the ones closer to feeding sites, distant to resting sites, and in areas sparse in tree vegetation. We also identified a total of 56 clustered direction change points indicating that the group modified their direction of travel. These changes in direction were influenced by their close proximity to resting and feeding sites. Despite our small sample size, the obtained results are important and consistent with the contention that common marmosets navigate using a topological map that seems to benefit these animals in response to the exploitation of clustered exudate trees. Based on our findings, we hypothesize that the Caatinga landscape imposes physical restrictions in our group's navigation such as gaps in vegetation, small trees and xerophytic plants. This study, based on preliminary evidence, raises the question of whether navigation patterns are an intrinsic characteristic of a species or are ecologically dependent and change according to the environment.

Do Bats Have the Necessary Prerequisites for Symbolic Communication?

Training animals such as apes, gray parrots, or dolphins that communicate via arbitrary symbols with humans has revealed astonishing mental capacities that may have otherwise gone unnoticed. Albeit bats have not yet been trained to communicate via symbols with humans, we are convinced that some species, especially captive Pteropodid bats ("flying foxes"), show the potential to master this cognitive task. Here, we briefly review what is known about bats' cognitive skills that constitute relevant prerequisites for symbolic communication with humans. We focus on social learning in general, trainability by humans, associative learning from humans, imitation, vocal production learning and usage learning, and social knowledge. Moreover, we highlight potential training paradigms that could be used to elicit simple "symbolic" bat-human communication, i.e., training bats to select arbitrary symbols on a touchscreen to elicit a desired behavior of the human caregiver. Touchscreen-proficient bats could participate in cognition research, e.g., to study their numerical competence or categorical perception, to further elucidate how nonhuman animals learn and perceive the world.

Spatial reorientation with a geometric array of auditory cues

A visuocentric bias has dominated the literature on spatial navigation and reorientation. Studies on visually accessed environments indicate that, during reorientation, human and non-human animals encode the geometric shape of the environment, even if this information is unnecessary and insufficient for the task. In an attempt to extend our limited knowledge on the similarities and differences between visual and non-visual navigation, here we examined whether the same phenomenon would be observed during auditory-guided reorientation. Provided with a rectangular array of four distinct auditory landmarks, blindfolded, sighted participants had to learn the location of a target object situated on a panel of an octagonal arena. Subsequent test trials were administered to understand how the task was acquired. Crucially, in a condition in which the auditory cues were indistinguishable (same sound sample), participants could still identify the correct target location, suggesting that the rectangular array of auditory landmarks was encoded as a geometric configuration. This is the first evidence of incidental encoding of geometric information with auditory cues and, consistent with the theory of functional equivalence, it supports the generalisation of mechanisms of spatial learning across encoding modalities.

Dynamic relationship between noseleaf and pinnae in echolocating hipposiderid bats

Old World leaf-nosed bats (family Hipposideridae) can deform the shapes of their 'noseleaves' (i.e. ultrasonic emission baffles) and outer ears during echolocation behaviors. Prior work has shown that deformations on the emission as well as on the reception side can have an impact on the properties of the emitted/received sonar signals. The occurrence of the deformations on the emission and reception sides raises the question of whether the bats coordinate these two dynamic biosonar features to achieve synergistic effects. To address this question, simultaneous three-dimensional reconstructions of the trajectories of landmarks on the dynamic noseleaf and pinna geometries have been obtained in great roundleaf bats (Hipposideros pratti). These joint kinematics data on the noseleaf and pinnae have shown both qualitative and quantitative relationships between the noseleaf and pinna motions: large noseleaf deformations (opening or closing) tended to be associated with non-rigid pinna motions. Furthermore, closing deformations of the noseleaves tended to co-occur with closing motions of the pinna. Finally, a canonical correlation analysis of the motion trajectories has revealed a tight correlation between the motions of the landmarks on the noseleaf and both pinnae. These results demonstrate that the biosonar system of hipposiderid bats includes coordinated emission and reception dynamics.