1
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Aggarwal I, Mayo AT, Murase T, Zhang EY, Aven B, Woolley AW. Cognitive versatility and adaptation to fluid participation in hospital emergency department teams. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1144638. [PMID: 38476398 PMCID: PMC10927813 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1144638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Role-based frameworks have long been the cornerstone of organizational coordination, providing clarity in role expectations among team members. However, the rise of "fluid participation"-a constant shift in team composition and skill sets-poses new challenges to traditional coordination mechanisms. In particular, with fluid participation, a team's roles can oscillate between disconnected and intersecting, or between lacking and having overlap in the capabilities and expectations of different roles. This study investigates the possibility that a disconnected set of roles creates a structural constraint on the flexible coordination needed to perform in volatile contexts, as well as the mitigating role of cognitive versatility in a team's strategically-central member. Utilizing a sample of 342 teams from a hospital Emergency Department, we find that teams with a disconnected role set are less effective than teams with an intersecting role set as demonstrated by longer patient stays and increased handoffs during shift changes. Importantly, the presence of a cognitively versatile attending physician mitigates these negative outcomes, enhancing overall team effectiveness. Our findings remain robust even after accounting for other variables like team expertise and familiarity. This research extends the Carnegie School's seminal work on fluid participation by integrating insights from psychology and organizational behavior, thereby identifying key individual attributes that can bolster team coordination in dynamic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishani Aggarwal
- Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration, FGV, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anna T. Mayo
- Heinz College of Information Systems and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | | | - Evelyn Y. Zhang
- Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Brandy Aven
- Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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2
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Olsen K, Tylén K. On the social nature of abstraction: cognitive implications of interaction and diversity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210361. [PMID: 36571125 PMCID: PMC9791485 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The human capacity for abstraction is remarkable. We effortlessly form abstract representations from varied experiences, generalizing and flexibly transferring experiences and knowledge between contexts, which can facilitate reasoning, problem solving and learning across many domains. The cognitive process of abstraction, however, is often portrayed and investigated as an individual process. This paper addresses how cognitive processes of abstraction-together with other aspects of human reasoning and problem solving-are fundamentally shaped and modulated by online social interaction. Starting from a general distinction between convergent thinking, divergent thinking and processes of abstraction, we address how social interaction shapes information processing differently depending on cognitive demands, social coordination and task ecologies. In particular, we suggest that processes of abstraction are facilitated by the interactive sharing and integration of varied individual experiences. To this end, we also discuss how the dynamics of group interactions vary as a function of group composition; that is, in terms of the similarity and diversity between the group members. We conclude by outlining the role of cognitive diversity in interactive processes and consider the importance of group diversity in processes of abstraction. This article is part of the theme issue 'Concepts in interaction: social engagement and inner experiences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Olsen
- The Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Department for Linguistics, Cognitive Science, and Semiotics, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kristian Tylén
- The Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Department for Linguistics, Cognitive Science, and Semiotics, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
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3
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Long LAN, Krause RM, Arnold G, Swanson R, Fatemi SM. The networked micro-decision context: a new lens on transformative urban governance. URBAN TRANSFORMATIONS 2023; 5:9. [PMID: 37073368 PMCID: PMC10096112 DOI: 10.1186/s42854-023-00054-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent large-scale societal disruptions, from the COVID-19 pandemic to intensifying wildfires and weather events, reveal the importance of transforming governance systems so they can address complex, transboundary, and rapidly evolving crises. Yet current knowledge of the decision-making dynamics that yield transformative governance remains scant. Studies typically focus on the aggregate outputs of government decisions, while overlooking their micro-level underpinnings. This is a key oversight because drivers of policy change, such as learning or competition, are prosecuted by people rather than organizations. We respond to this knowledge gap by introducing a new analytical lens for understanding policymaking, aimed at uncovering how characteristics of decision-makers and the structure of their relationships affect their likelihood of effectuating transformative policy responses. This perspective emphasizes the need for a more dynamic and relational view on urban governance in the context of transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Anh Nguyen Long
- Department of Public Administration, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Behavioural Management and Social Sciences, Cubicus Building, Room C-326, Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rachel M. Krause
- School of Public Affairs and Administration, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS USA
| | - Gwen Arnold
- Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, CA USA
| | - Ryan Swanson
- Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, CA USA
| | - S. Mohsen Fatemi
- School of Public Affairs and Administration, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS USA
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4
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Jones PL, Sauma S, Bernard MA. Perspective: Scientific Workforce Diversity and Its Impact on Aging Research. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2022; 77:2336-2340. [PMID: 36409830 PMCID: PMC9923791 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glac117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Jones
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Samir Sauma
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Marie A Bernard
- Address correspondence to: Marie A. Bernard, MD, Office of the Chief Officer for Scientific Workforce Diversity/Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health, 1 Center Drive, Suite 316, Bethesda, MD, USA. E-mail:
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5
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Nawaz MR, Ishaq MI, Ahmad R, Faisal M, Raza A. Team diversity, conflict, and trust: Evidence from the health sector. Front Psychol 2022; 13:935773. [PMID: 36300039 PMCID: PMC9590623 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.935773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The current study aims to determine the impact of diversity and intra-team trust on conflict within the health sector of Pakistan. This study also measures the moderating role of trust in the relationship between diversity and conflict among team members. Data was collected using personally administered questionnaires from 61 teams, including 377 respondents working in 4 public sector hospitals in Pakistan, which were selected using a simple random sampling technique. The results revealed that diversity (as a composite) positively influences task conflict, while its two components-surface-level diversity and deep-level diversity-are associated positively with task conflict. Moreover, the results also lead to an exciting finding that trust among team members could reduce the positive influence of diversity on team members' conflict. The implications for theory and practitioners are presented along with the avenues for future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Rafay Nawaz
- Institute of Quality and Technology Management, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | - Rehan Ahmad
- Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Faisal
- COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Ali Raza
- School of Management Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
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6
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Cook CN, Freeman AR, Liao JC, Mangiamele LA. The Philosophy of Outliers: Reintegrating Rare Events Into Biological Science. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 61:2191-2198. [PMID: 34283241 PMCID: PMC9076997 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual variation in morphology, physiology, and behavior has been a topic of great interest in the biological sciences. While scientists realize the importance of understanding diversity in individual phenotypes, historically the "minority" results (i.e., outlier observations or rare events) of any given experiment have been dismissed from further analysis. We need to reframe how we view "outliers" to improve our understanding of biology. These rare events are often treated as problematic or spurious, when they can be real rare events or individuals driving evolution in a population. It is our perspective that to understand what outliers can tell us in our data, we need to: (1) Change how we think about our data philosophically, (2) Fund novel collaborations using science "weavers" in our national funding agencies, and (3) Bridge long-term field and lab studies to reveal these outliers in action. By doing so, we will improve our understanding of variation and evolution. We propose that this shift in culture towards more integrative science will incorporate diverse teams, citizen scientists and local naturalists, and change how we teach future students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea N Cook
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Angela R Freeman
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - James C Liao
- Department of Biology, Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Lisa A Mangiamele
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA
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7
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Yu S, Greer LL. The Role of Resources in the Success or Failure of Diverse Teams: Resource Scarcity Activates Negative Performance-Detracting Resource Dynamics in Social Category Diverse Teams. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2021.1560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Increasing the social category diversity of work teams is top of mind for many organizations. However, such efforts may not always be sufficiently resourced, given the numerous resource demands facing organizations. In this paper, we offer a novel take on the relationship between social category diversity and team performance, seeking to understand the role resources may play in both altering and explaining the performance dynamics of diverse teams. Specifically, our resource framework explains how the effects of social category diversity on team performance can be explained by intrateam resource cognitions and behaviors and are dependent on team resource availability. We propose that in the face of scarcity in a focal resource (i.e., budget), diverse (but not homogenous) teams generalize this scarcity perception to fear that all resources (i.e., staff, time, etc.) are scarce, prompting performance-detracting power struggles over resources within the team. We find support for our model in three multimethod team-level studies, including two laboratory studies of interacting teams and a field study of work teams in research and development firms. Our resource framework provides a new lens to study the success or failure of diverse teams by illuminating a previously overlooked danger in diverse teams (negative resource cognitions (scarcity spillover bias) and behaviors (intrateam power struggles)), which offers enhanced explanatory power over prior explanations. This resource framework for the study of team diversity also yields insight into how to remove the roadblocks that may occur in diverse teams, highlighting the necessity of resource sufficiency for the success of diverse teams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Yu
- Organization Behavior Area, Jones Graduate School of Business, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
| | - Lindred L. Greer
- Department of Management and Organization, Stephen M. Ross School of Business, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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8
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Lee MK, Kish-Gephart JJ, Mizruchi MS, Palmer DA, Useem M. Social Class in Organizations: Entrance, Promotion, and Organizational and Societal Consequences of the Corporate Elite. JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT INQUIRY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/10564926211027661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organizational theorists studying executives of large corporations have long theorized that top management is dominated by elites of upper social class background. Organizations reflect the class system in the societies they are situated in by advantaging those of higher social class background. If organizations are perpetuating societal inequality by favoring those from higher social class and positioning them to dictate organizational outcomes, it is important to understand ways to reduce inequality by increasing social class diversity, and theorize on the implications of this diversity for business and society. This article brings together scholars on the forefront of social class research to understand the influence of social class on the corporate elite. The scholars explore the effect of social class in attaining access to the most influential managerial positions, conditions that enable greater diversity, and how the corporate elite can affect firm strategic actions and key societal outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle K. Lee
- Smith School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | | | - Mark S. Mizruchi
- Department of Sociology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Donald A. Palmer
- Graduate School of Management, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Michael Useem
- Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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9
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Pescetelli N, Rutherford A, Rahwan I. Modularity and composite diversity affect the collective gathering of information online. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3195. [PMID: 34045445 PMCID: PMC8159948 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23424-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Many modern interactions happen in a digital space, where automated recommendations and homophily can shape the composition of groups interacting together and the knowledge that groups are able to tap into when operating online. Digital interactions are also characterized by different scales, from small interest groups to large online communities. Here, we manipulate the composition of groups based on a large multi-trait profiling space (including demographic, professional, psychological and relational variables) to explore the causal link between group composition and performance as a function of group size. We asked volunteers to search news online under time pressure and measured individual and group performance in forecasting real geo-political events. Our manipulation affected the correlation of forecasts made by people after online searches. Group composition interacted with group size so that composite diversity benefited individual and group performance proportionally to group size. Aggregating opinions of modular crowds composed of small independent groups achieved better forecasts than aggregating a similar number of forecasts from non-modular ones. Finally, we show differences existing among groups in terms of disagreement, speed of convergence to consensus forecasts and within-group variability in performance. The present work sheds light on the mechanisms underlying effective online information gathering in digital environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò Pescetelli
- Center for Humans and Machines, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany. .,Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Alex Rutherford
- Center for Humans and Machines, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany.,Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Iyad Rahwan
- Center for Humans and Machines, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany.,Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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10
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Board diversity: female director participation and corporate innovation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ACCOUNTING AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1108/ijaim-06-2020-0080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
This study aims to examine the impact of board female participation on Australian firms’ innovation.
Design/methodology/approach
Data are from the 500 largest Australian Securities Exchange (ASX)-listed companies for 2004–2015. Measures of innovation concern input (research and development expenditure and intangible assets) and output (patents registered) indicators.
Findings
A positive and significant association exists between female director participation and firm innovation activity. This association exists across industry classifications independent of technological importance and is particularly driven by materials and health-care sectors. Findings support calls for more board diversity in line with board female membership positively influencing innovative investment and development activities.
Practical implications
The economic efficacy of the latest revisions to the ASX Corporate Governance Council principles and recommendations (“ASX CGC revisions”) is supported. Diverse boards are a strong source of innovation. Regulators and corporations can use the findings to establish principles and practices that promote female board diversity.
Originality/value
This study is the first to examine the link between board diversity and corporate innovation in Australia where there is under-representation of women on corporate boards and in key management positions. Also lacking are formal legislative or governance policy mandates on board gender diversity. Beyond confirming a positive association between board diversity and levels of corporate innovation, this paper provides new findings that this relationship is driven by women who are non-executive (independent) directors, independent of the underlying technology intensity of firms and moderated by the nature of firm-level profitability and growth opportunities.
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11
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The impact of gender quotas on corporate boards: a cross-country comparative study. JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & GOVERNANCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10997-020-09562-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Peters U. Hidden figures: epistemic costs and benefits of detecting (invisible) diversity in science. EUROPEAN JOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2021; 11:33. [PMID: 33686351 PMCID: PMC7928186 DOI: 10.1007/s13194-021-00349-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Demographic diversity might often be present in a group without group members noticing it. What are the epistemic effects if they do? Several philosophers and social scientists have recently argued that when individuals detect demographic diversity in their group, this can result in epistemic benefits even if that diversity doesn't involve cognitive differences. Here I critically discuss research advocating this proposal, introduce a distinction between two types of detection of demographic diversity, and apply this distinction to the theorizing on diversity in science. Focusing on 'invisible' diversity (i.e., differences in, e.g., LGBTQ+, religious, or political orientation), I argue that in one common kind of group in science, if group members have full insight into their group's diversity, this is likely to create epistemic costs. These costs can be avoided and epistemic benefits gained if group members only partly detect their group's diversity. There is thus an epistemic reason for context-dependent limitations on scientists' insight into the diversity of their group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Peters
- Center for Science and Thought, University of Bonn, Am Hof 1, 53113 Bonn, Germany
- Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Psychology, King’s College London, London, UK
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13
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Board/Executive Gender Diversity and Firm Financial Performance in Canada: The Mediating Role of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Orientation. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12208386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to verify the effect of gender diversity on the board of directors (BD) and the executive committee (EC) of participating Canadian firms with regard to the financial performance and the mediating role of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) orientation in this relationship. The study sample was composed of 133 Canadian firms, and the data cover an 18 year timeline (2002–2019), with 925 observations. This paper provides empirical support for the effect that gender diversity in turnover has on the financial performance of firms and explains 53% of its variance. In addition to supporting the beneficial effect of gender diversity on performance, the study reveals the mediating mechanism through the ESG orientation of companies explaining almost 4% of the total effect of gender diversity on performance. By analyzing two levels of diversity, the study revealed the superiority of the effect of gender diversity in BDs as compared to ECs. We discuss the theoretical and empirical implications of the results found, as well as the limitations and future prospects of research on the subject.
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14
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Masuda T, Ito K, Lee J, Suzuki S, Yasuda Y, Akutsu S. Culture and Business: How Can Cultural Psychologists Contribute to Research on Behaviors in the Marketplace and Workplace? Front Psychol 2020; 11:1304. [PMID: 32760309 PMCID: PMC7373734 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cultural psychology has great potential to expand its research frameworks to more applied research fields in business such as marketing and organizational studies while going beyond basic psychological processes to more complex social practices. In fact, the number of cross-cultural business studies has grown constantly over the past 20 years. Nonetheless, the theoretical and methodological closeness between cultural psychology and these business-oriented studies has not been fully recognized by scholars in cultural psychology. In this paper, we briefly introduce six representative cultural constructs commonly applied in business research, which include (1) individualism vs. collectivism, (2) independence vs. interdependence, (3) analytic vs. holistic cognition, (4) vertical vs. horizontal orientation, (5) tightness vs. looseness, and (6) strong vs. weak uncertainty avoidance. We plot the constructs on a chart to conceptually represent a common ground between cultural psychology and business research. We then review some representative empirical studies from the research fields of marketing and organizational studies which utilize at least one of these six constructs in their research frameworks. At the end of the paper, we recommend some future directions for further advancing collaboration with scholars in the field of marketing and organizational studies, while referring to theoretical and methodological issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiko Masuda
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Kenichi Ito
- School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jinju Lee
- School of International Corporate Strategy, Hitotsubashi University Business School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoko Suzuki
- School of International Corporate Strategy, Hitotsubashi University Business School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuto Yasuda
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Satoshi Akutsu
- School of International Corporate Strategy, Hitotsubashi University Business School, Tokyo, Japan
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15
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Unpacking Participation and Influence: Diversity’s Countervailing Effects on Expertise Use in Groups. ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT DISCOVERIES 2020. [DOI: 10.5465/amd.2018.0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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16
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Deng Y, Wang CS, Aime F, Wang L, Sivanathan N, Kim YCK. Culture and Patterns of Reciprocity: The Role of Exchange Type, Regulatory Focus, and Emotions. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2020; 47:20-41. [PMID: 32321362 DOI: 10.1177/0146167220913694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Reciprocity is a fundamental mechanism for sustained social relationships. Escalation-based theories suggest that reciprocity intensifies over time. In contrast, equity-based theories propose that people reciprocate behaviors in kind. We reconcile these conflicting perspectives by examining social exchanges across different cultural contexts. Using three complementary experiments, we investigate when, how, and why individuals in East Asian settings and those in North American settings differentially reciprocate positive versus negative behaviors over time. Study 1 demonstrated that in positively framed exchanges (i.e., giving) Americans escalated their reciprocity, but Singaporeans reciprocated in kind. However, in negatively framed exchanges (i.e., taking), Singaporeans escalated their reciprocity, but Americans reciprocated in kind. Study 2 replicated the results using Hong Kongers and showed that cultural differences in regulatory focus were associated with specific emotions (i.e., anxiety and happiness), which then escalated reciprocity. To establish causality, Study 3 manipulated regulatory focus within one culture and replicated the pattern of results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Long Wang
- City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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17
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Age and tenure diversity on the work floor. EVIDENCE-BASED HRM: A GLOBAL FORUM FOR EMPIRICAL SCHOLARSHIP 2019. [DOI: 10.1108/ebhrm-04-2019-0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PurposePast research on how to compose a team is ambiguous, especially with respect to diversity dimensions. The authors argue that previous inconsistencies in results have arisen for two main reasons. First, there is a lack of clarity about the concept of age diversity, as age separation, age variety and age disparity are frequently used synonymously, but capture very different aspects of diversity. Second, in many research settings, age and tenure diversity have been intertwined. When staffing teams, many staff managers ask for staffing advise concerning staff diversity in order to enhance efficiency. This staffing problem is mainly a question how homogeneous and heterogeneous teams should be composed. In this paper, the authors capture both – age and tenure diversity – as well as their interaction and argue that age separation and tenure variety are most likely to affect team performance in a routine task. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThe authors are testing the hypothesis using rich quantitative field data from a steel company.FindingsThe results show that age separation decreases performance while tenure variety increases performance. Moreover, the beneficial effects of tenure variety cannot arise when age separation is too large.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors show that diversity research is very sensitive to the operationalization of diversity.Practical implicationsManagers can benefit from the study by learning how to optimally staff teams: while age diversity should be low, tenure diversity can be high.Originality/valueDue to the unique data set, the authors can separate the influence of tenure and age diversity.
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18
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Manata B. Investigating the Impact of Racial Diversity in Decision‐making Groups: The Moderating Role of Relationship Conflict. NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/ncmr.12173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Manata
- Department of Communication Arts and Sciences The Pennsylvania State University University Park PA U.S.A
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19
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Kong DT, Belkin LY. Because I want to share, not because I should: Prosocial implications of gratitude expression in repeated zero-sum resource allocation exchanges. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-019-09764-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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20
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Steel D, Fazelpour S, Crewe B, Gillette K. Information elaboration and epistemic effects of diversity. SYNTHESE 2019; 198:1287-1307. [PMID: 33707800 PMCID: PMC7907020 DOI: 10.1007/s11229-019-02108-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We suggest that philosophical accounts of epistemic effects of diversity have given insufficient attention to the relationship between demographic diversity and information elaboration (IE), the process whereby knowledge dispersed in a group is elicited and examined. We propose an analysis of IE that clarifies hypotheses proposed in the empirical literature and their relationship to philosophical accounts of diversity effects. Philosophical accounts have largely overlooked the possibility that demographic diversity may improve group performance by enhancing IE, and sometimes fail to explore the relationship between diversity and IE altogether. We claim these omissions are significant from both a practical and theoretical perspective. Moreover, we explain how the overlooked explanations suggest that epistemic benefits of diversity can depend on epistemically unjust social dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Steel
- W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 6356 Agricultural Road, Vancouver, BC V62 1Z2 Canada
| | - Sina Fazelpour
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Bianca Crewe
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Kinley Gillette
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
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Steel D, Fazelpour S, Gillette K, Crewe B, Burgess M. Multiple diversity concepts and their ethical-epistemic implications. EUROPEAN JOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2018; 8:761-780. [PMID: 30956737 PMCID: PMC6414089 DOI: 10.1007/s13194-018-0209-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A concept of diversity is an understanding of what makes a group diverse that may be applicable in a variety of contexts. We distinguish three diversity concepts, show that each can be found in discussions of diversity in science, and explain how they tend to be associated with distinct epistemic and ethical rationales. Yet philosophical literature on diversity among scientists has given little attention to distinct concepts of diversity. This is significant because the unappreciated existence of multiple diversity concepts can generate unclarity about the meaning of "diversity," lead to problematic inferences from empirical research, and obscure complex ethical-epistemic questions about how to define diversity in specific cases. We illustrate some ethical-epistemic implications of our proposal by reference to an example of deliberative mini-publics on human tissue biobanking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Steel
- W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 6356 Agricultural Road, Vancouver, BC V62 1Z2 Canada
| | - Sina Fazelpour
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Kinley Gillette
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Bianca Crewe
- Department of Philosophy, University of British Columbia, 1866 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Michael Burgess
- W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia, 6356 Agricultural Road, Vancouver, BC V62 1Z2 Canada
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22
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Whitson JA, Kim J, Wang CS, Menon T, Webster BD. Regulatory Focus and Conspiratorial Perceptions: The Importance of Personal Control. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2018; 45:3-15. [PMID: 29855224 DOI: 10.1177/0146167218775070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We examine when and why people subscribe to conspiratorial beliefs, suggesting that promotion focus reduces conspiratorial perceptions by activating a sense of personal control. Study 1 established that individuals primed with promotion focus are less likely to perceive conspiracies than those in a baseline condition. However, individuals primed with prevention focus and those in a baseline condition did not differ in their levels of conspiratorial beliefs. Study 2 demonstrated that soldiers higher in promotion focus were less likely to endorse conspiracy theories because of their heightened sense of control; this relationship did not emerge for soldiers higher in prevention focus. Study 3 found that conspiratorial beliefs increased when individuals primed with promotion focus recalled personal control loss, whereas those primed with prevention focus were unaffected by personal control loss. Using measures and manipulations of regulatory focus and personal control, we establish when and why promotion focus reduces conspiracy theories.
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23
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Demographically diverse crowds are typically not much wiser than homogeneous crowds. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:2066-2071. [PMID: 29440376 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1717632115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Averaging independent numerical judgments can be more accurate than the average individual judgment. This "wisdom of crowds" effect has been shown with large, diverse samples, but the layperson wishing to take advantage of this may only have access to the opinions of a small, more demographically homogeneous "convenience sample." How wise are homogeneous crowds relative to diverse crowds? In simulations and survey studies, we demonstrate three necessary conditions under which small socially diverse crowds can outperform socially homogeneous crowds: Social identity must predict judgment, the effect of social identity on judgment must be at least moderate in size, and the average estimates of the social groups in question must "bracket" the truth being judged. Seven survey studies suggest that these conditions are rarely met in real judgment tasks. Comparisons between the performances of diverse and homogeneous crowds further confirm that social diversity can make crowds wiser but typically by a very small margin.
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24
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Linking Ethnic Composition and Performance: Information Integration Between Majority and Minority Members. SMALL GROUP RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1046496417749727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Often labeled a double-edged sword, diversity can not only trigger social categorization that dampens group cohesion and performance, but it can also increase available information resources and enhance group performance. The ways in which a group integrates information from diverse members play a central role in determining whether and how it can reap benefits from diversity. Guided by research in team diversity and relational demography, we take a diversity-as-disparity approach and focus on the extent of information integration between majority- and minority-status members in a group. Specifically, drawing from social network research, we examine whether majority–minority information brokerage equality mediates the impact of ethnic composition on group performance. Based on data from 540 employees in 34 work groups from a Chinese organization, we find that majority–minority information brokerage equality mediates the impact of ethnic composition on performance but only when group climate is high. We also discuss theoretical and practical implications.
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25
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van Veelen R, Ufkes EG. Teaming Up or Down? A Multisource Study on the Role of Team Identification and Learning in the Team Diversity–Performance Link. GROUP & ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1059601117750532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prior literature paints an incoherent picture on the relationship between team diversity and performance. The current article investigates circumstances under which demographic diversity (gender and nationality) facilitates performance. Based on the categorization–elaboration model, we build a theoretical framework to demonstrate the crucial role of team learning and efficacy as mediators, and team identification as a moderator to understand how and when demographic diversity facilitates team performance. In a cross-sectional study among 72 project teams, data were collected from multiple sources (self-reports, database, and performance assessments) to obtain objective and subjective indices of team diversity and performance. Results from a multigroup structural equation model showed that team diversity facilitated performance for teams with a strong, but not a weak, collective team identity. Second, team diversity facilitated performance through increased team learning and team efficacy only for teams with a strong team identity. Finally, multisource data revealed a different pattern of results for objective and subjective measures. The objective diversity index seemed a more powerful predictor of performance compared with the subjective index, particularly for strongly identifying teams. These findings provide valuable insight for increasingly diversifying organizations, on the circumstances under which team diversity’s potential flourishes. Moreover, it underlines the importance of data triangulation as objective and subjective measures of diversity are conceptually different and show incoherent empirical findings in the diversity–performance link across extant literature.
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26
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Decision Diversion in Diverse Teams: Findings from Inside a Corporate Boardroom. ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT DISCOVERIES 2017. [DOI: 10.5465/amd.2015.0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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27
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Chung S, Lount RB, Park HM, Park ES. Friends With Performance Benefits: A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship Between Friendship and Group Performance. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2017; 44:63-79. [PMID: 29017391 DOI: 10.1177/0146167217733069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The current article examines if, and under which conditions, there exists a positive relationship between working with friends and group performance. To do so, using data from 1,016 groups obtained from 26 studies, we meta-analyzed comparisons of the performance of friendship groups versus acquaintance groups. Results show that friendship has a significant positive effect on group task performance (Cohen's d = 0.31). Furthermore, this relationship was moderated by group size (i.e., the positive effect of friendship on performance increased with group size) and task focus (i.e., friendship groups performed better than acquaintance groups on tasks requiring a high quantity of output, whereas there was no performance benefit on tasks requiring a single or high-quality output). These results help to reconcile mixed findings and illustrate when friendship groups are more likely to perform better than acquaintance groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hee Man Park
- 2 Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
| | - Ernest S Park
- 3 Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
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28
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Chanland DE, Murphy WM. Propelling diverse leaders to the top: A developmental network approach. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/hrm.21842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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29
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Bang D, Frith CD. Making better decisions in groups. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170193. [PMID: 28878973 PMCID: PMC5579088 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We review the literature to identify common problems of decision-making in individuals and groups. We are guided by a Bayesian framework to explain the interplay between past experience and new evidence, and the problem of exploring the space of hypotheses about all the possible states that the world could be in and all the possible actions that one could take. There are strong biases, hidden from awareness, that enter into these psychological processes. While biases increase the efficiency of information processing, they often do not lead to the most appropriate action. We highlight the advantages of group decision-making in overcoming biases and searching the hypothesis space for good models of the world and good solutions to problems. Diversity of group members can facilitate these achievements, but diverse groups also face their own problems. We discuss means of managing these pitfalls and make some recommendations on how to make better group decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Bang
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Chris D. Frith
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- Institute of Philosophy, University of London, London WC1E 7HU, UK
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30
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Carter AB, Phillips KW. The double-edged sword of diversity: Toward a dual pathway model. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Whitson J, Anicich EM, Wang CS, Galinsky AD. Navigating Stigma and Group Conflict: Group Identification as a Cause and Consequence of Self-Labeling. NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/ncmr.12094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Whitson
- UCLA Anderson School of Management; Los Angeles CA U.S.A
- University of Southern California; Los Angeles CA U.S.A
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32
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Fisher CM. An ounce of prevention or a pound of cure? Two experiments on in-process interventions in decision-making groups. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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33
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Wang L, Doucet L, Waller M, Sanders K, Phillips S. A Laughing Matter: Patterns of Laughter and the Effectiveness of Working Dyads. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2016.1082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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35
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Topaz CM, Sen S. Gender Representation on Journal Editorial Boards in the Mathematical Sciences. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161357. [PMID: 27536970 PMCID: PMC4990198 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We study gender representation on the editorial boards of 435 journals in the mathematical sciences. Women are known to comprise approximately 15% of tenure-stream faculty positions in doctoral-granting mathematical sciences departments in the United States. Compared to this group, we find that 8.9% of the 13067 editorships in our study are held by women. We describe group variations within the editorships by identifying specific journals, subfields, publishers, and countries that significantly exceed or fall short of this average. To enable our study, we develop a semi-automated method for inferring gender that has an estimated accuracy of 97.5%. Our findings provide the first measure of gender distribution on editorial boards in the mathematical sciences, offer insights that suggest future studies in the mathematical sciences, and introduce new methods that enable large-scale studies of gender distribution in other fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad M. Topaz
- Dept. of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Shilad Sen
- Dept. of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science, Macalester College, Saint Paul, MN, United States of America
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36
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Richeson JA, Sommers SR. Toward a Social Psychology of Race and Race Relations for the Twenty-First Century. Annu Rev Psychol 2016; 67:439-63. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A. Richeson
- Department of Psychology, Department of African American Studies, and Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208;
| | - Samuel R. Sommers
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155;
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37
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Galinsky AD, Todd AR, Homan AC, Phillips KW, Apfelbaum EP, Sasaki SJ, Richeson JA, Olayon JB, Maddux WW. Maximizing the Gains and Minimizing the Pains of Diversity. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 10:742-8. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691615598513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Empirical evidence reveals that diversity—heterogeneity in race, culture, gender, etc.—has material benefits for organizations, communities, and nations. However, because diversity can also incite detrimental forms of conflict and resentment, its benefits are not always realized. Drawing on research from multiple disciplines, this article offers recommendations for how best to harness the benefits of diversity. First, we highlight how two forms of diversity—the diversity present in groups, communities, and nations, and the diversity acquired by individuals through their personal experiences (e.g., living abroad)—enable effective decision making, innovation, and economic growth by promoting deeper information processing and complex thinking. Second, we identify methods to remove barriers that limit the amount of diversity and opportunity in organizations. Third, we describe practices, including inclusive multiculturalism and perspective taking, that can help manage diversity without engendering resistance. Finally, we propose a number of policies that can maximize the gains and minimize the pains of diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D. Galinsky
- Management Department, Columbia Business School, Columbia University
| | - Andrew R. Todd
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa
| | | | | | | | - Stacey J. Sasaki
- Management Department, Columbia Business School, Columbia University
| | - Jennifer A. Richeson
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University
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38
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Lount RB, Sheldon OJ, Rink F, Phillips KW. Biased Perceptions of Racially Diverse Teams and Their Consequences for Resource Support. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2015.0994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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39
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Levine EE, Schweitzer ME. The affective and interpersonal consequences of obesity. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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40
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Ku G, Wang CS, Galinsky AD. The promise and perversity of perspective-taking in organizations. RESEARCH IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riob.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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41
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Abstract
Information elaboration is the mechanism through which diverse group members share unique knowledge and perspectives to form better and more creative responses to tasks. However, little is known about the conditions under which group members will be willing and motivated to engage in information elaboration. This article presents a field study conducted in an energy company to investigate that issue. Regression analysis of survey responses suggests that group members who have deep, underlying differences in perspective from the group engage in less information elaboration, particularly if they perceive themselves as similar to the group. Recognizing deep-level differences is helpful, however, when an individual also differs from the group in surface-level characteristics, because those differences improve information elaboration. This finding suggests that surface-level diversity prompts group members to understand and appreciate their deep-level differences.
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