1
|
Stevens S, McPartland M, Bartosova Z, Skåland HS, Völker J, Wagner M. Plastic Food Packaging from Five Countries Contains Endocrine- and Metabolism-Disrupting Chemicals. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:4859-4871. [PMID: 38441001 PMCID: PMC10956434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Plastics are complex chemical mixtures of polymers and various intentionally and nonintentionally added substances. Despite the well-established links between certain plastic chemicals (bisphenols and phthalates) and adverse health effects, the composition and toxicity of real-world mixtures of plastic chemicals are not well understood. To assess both, we analyzed the chemicals from 36 plastic food contact articles from five countries using nontarget high-resolution mass spectrometry and reporter-gene assays for four nuclear receptors that represent key components of the endocrine and metabolic system. We found that chemicals activating the pregnane X receptor (PXR), peroxisome proliferator receptor γ (PPARγ), estrogen receptor α (ERα), and inhibiting the androgen receptor (AR) are prevalent in plastic packaging. We detected up to 9936 chemical features in a single product and found that each product had a rather unique chemical fingerprint. To tackle this chemical complexity, we used stepwise partial least-squares regressions and prioritized and tentatively identified the chemical features associated with receptor activity. Our findings demonstrate that most plastic food packaging contains endocrine- and metabolism-disrupting chemicals. Since samples with fewer chemical features induce less toxicity, chemical simplification is key to producing safer plastic packaging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Stevens
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Molly McPartland
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Zdenka Bartosova
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanna Sofie Skåland
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Johannes Völker
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Martin Wagner
- Department
of Biology, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Beneventi E, Goldbeck C, Zellmer S, Merkel S, Luch A, Tietz T. Migration of styrene oligomers from food contact materials: in silico prediction of possible genotoxicity. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:3013-3032. [PMID: 35963937 PMCID: PMC9376037 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03350-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Styrene oligomers (SO) are well-known side products formed during styrene polymerization. They consist mainly of dimers (SD) and trimers (ST) that have been shown to be still residual in polystyrene (PS) materials. In this study migration of SO from PS into sunflower oil at temperatures between 5 and 70 °C and contact times between 0.5 h and 10 days was investigated. In addition, the contents of SD and ST in the fatty foodstuffs créme fraiche and coffee cream, which are typically enwrapped in PS, were measured and the amounts detected (of up to 0.123 mg/kg food) were compared to literature data. From this comparison, it became evident, that the levels of SO migrating from PS packaging into real food call for a comprehensive risk assessment. As a first step towards this direction, possible genotoxicity has to be addressed. Due to technical and experimental limitations, however, the few existing in vitro tests available are unsuited to provide a clear picture. In order to reduce uncertainty of these in vitro tests, four different knowledge and statistics-based in silico tools were applied to such SO that are known to migrate into food. Except for SD4 all evaluated SD and ST showed no alert for genotoxicity. For SD4, either the predictions were inconclusive or the substance was assigned as being out of the chemical space (out of domain) of the respective in silico tool. Therefore, the absence of genotoxicity of SD4 requires additional experimental proof. Apart from SD4, in silico studies supported the limited in vitro data that indicated the absence of genotoxicity of SO. In conclusion, the overall migration of all SO together into food of up to 50 µg/kg does not raise any health concerns, given the currently available in silico and in vitro data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Beneventi
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christophe Goldbeck
- Chemical and Veterinary, Analytical Institute Muensterland-Emscher-Lippe (CVUA-MEL), 48147, Münster, Germany
| | - Sebastian Zellmer
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Merkel
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Luch
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Tietz
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kubicova M, Puchta E, Säger S, Hug C, Hofmann S, Simat TJ. Styrene-acrylonitrile-copolymer and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene-copolymer: a study on extractable and migratable oligomers. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:397-414. [PMID: 34780321 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1995631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Styrene-acrylonitrile-copolymer (SAN) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene-copolymer (ABS) are gaining in importance as food contact materials. Oligomers and other non-intentionally added substances can migrate into foodstuffs. Five SAN and four ABS samples from the German market and manufacturers were extracted and the extractable oligomers were characterised by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/ultraviolet detection/chemiluminescence nitrogen detection/fluorescence detection and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Trimers, formed from acrylonitrile and styrene units, were determined to be the dominating group of extractable oligomers in SAN and ABS in concentrations of about 4900-15800 mg/kg material. Furthermore, styrene-acrylonitrile dimers, styrene oligomers, styrene monomer and ethylbenzene were identified in the sample extracts. Migration testing with three consecutive migrations for multiple use articles was performed for two SAN articles. Migration of trimers into water, 3% acetic acid, 10% and 20% ethanol under hot-fill conditions (70°C, 2 h) was not detectable above 9 µg/dm2, while 50% ethanol acting as a food simulant for milk (124 µg/dm2 trimers during the third migration) was shown to overestimate the actual migration into milk (< 11 µg/dm2 trimers at 70°C, 2 h). 2-Amino-3-methyl-1-naphthalenecarbonitrile (AMNC), an oligomer degradation product and a primary aromatic amine, was detected in all material sample extracts (0.3-17.1 mg/kg material) and was released into food simulants in low amounts (< 0.014 µg/dm2 during the third migration into 50% ethanol at 70°C, 2 h).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Kubicova
- Chair for Food Chemistry and Food and Skin Contact Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elise Puchta
- Chair for Food Chemistry and Food and Skin Contact Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sebastian Säger
- Management Board, Labor Lommatzsch & Säger GmbH, Köln, Germany
| | - Constanze Hug
- Chair for Food Chemistry and Food and Skin Contact Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sandra Hofmann
- Chair for Food Chemistry and Food and Skin Contact Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas J Simat
- Chair for Food Chemistry and Food and Skin Contact Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Prichystalova R, Caron-Beaudoin E, Richardson L, Dirkx E, Amadou A, Zavodna T, Cihak R, Cogliano V, Hynes J, Pelland-St-Pierre L, Verner MA, van Tongeren M, Ho V. An approach to classifying occupational exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals by sex hormone function using an expert judgment process. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2021; 31:753-768. [PMID: 32704083 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-020-0253-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with the endocrine system and cause adverse effects. We aimed to classify the effects of 24 known EDCs, prevalent in certain occupations, according to four modes of action (estrogenic, antiestrogenic, androgenic, and/or antiandrogenic). A literature search, stratified into four types of literature was conducted (namely: national and international agency reports; review articles; primary studies; ToxCastTM). The state of the evidence of each EDC on sex hormone function was summarized and reviewed by an expert panel. For each mode of action, the experts evaluated the likelihood of endocrine disruption in five categories: "No", "Unlikely", "Possibly", "Probably", and "Yes". Seven agents were categorized as "Yes," or having strong evidence for their effects on sex hormone function (antiandrogenic: lead, arsenic, butylbenzyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, dicyclohexyl phthalate; estrogenic: nonylphenol, bisphenol A). Nine agents were categorized as "Probable," or having probable evidence (antiandrogenic: bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, nonylphenol, toluene, bisphenol A, diisononyl phthalate; androgenic: cadmium; estrogenic: copper, cadmium and; anti-estrogenic: lead). Two agents (arsenic, polychlorinated biphenyls) had opposing conclusions supporting both "probably" estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects. This synthesis will allow researchers to evaluate the health effects of selected EDCs with an added level of precision related to the mode of action.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Prichystalova
- Faculty of Safety Engineering, Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - E Caron-Beaudoin
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - L Richardson
- Centre de recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - E Dirkx
- Centre de recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - A Amadou
- Département Prévention Cancer Environnement, Centre Léon Bérard, Lyon, France
- Inserm UA 08 Radiations: Défense, Santé, Environement, Lyon, France
| | - T Zavodna
- Institute of Experimental Medicine of the CAS, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - R Cihak
- Výzkumný ústav organických syntéz a.s., Centre for Ecology, Toxicology and Analytics, Rybitví, Czech Republic
| | - V Cogliano
- National Center for Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA
| | - J Hynes
- JH Tox Consulting, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - L Pelland-St-Pierre
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - M A Verner
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Centre de recherche en santé publique (CReSP), Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - M van Tongeren
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Division of Population Health, Health Services Research & Primary Care, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - V Ho
- Centre de recherche du CHUM (CRCHUM), Montréal, QC, Canada.
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Niehoff NM, Gammon MD, Keil AP, Nichols HB, Engel LS, Sandler DP, White AJ. Airborne mammary carcinogens and breast cancer risk in the Sister Study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 130:104897. [PMID: 31226564 PMCID: PMC6679994 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Potentially carcinogenic hazardous air pollutants (air toxics) have been inconsistently associated with breast cancer. Whether metabolic factors modify these associations is unknown. We studied 29 non-metallic air toxics classified as mammary gland carcinogens in animal studies in relation to breast cancer risk. METHODS Participants included 49,718 women from the Sister Study. Census tract air toxic concentration estimates from the 2005 National Air Toxics Assessment were linked to enrollment residential addresses. Adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for individual air toxics were estimated using Cox regression. Body mass index (BMI) was considered a potential modifier. Relevant mixtures were identified using classification trees. RESULTS Over follow-up (average = 8.4 years), 2975 women were newly diagnosed with breast cancer (invasive or ductal carcinoma in situ). Several air toxics, including methylene chloride, polycyclic organic matter, propylene dichloride, and styrene, were associated with increased risk. Of these, methylene chloride was most consistently associated with risk across multiple analyses. It was associated with overall (HRquintile 4vs1 = 1.21 (95%CI = 1.07-1.38)) and estrogen receptor positive (ER+) invasive breast cancer (HRquintile 4vs1 = 1.28 (95%CI = 1.08-1.52)) in individual pollutant models, although no dose-response was observed. Associations were stronger among overweight/obese (vs. non-overweight/obese) women (p < 0.05) for six air toxics. The classification tree identified combinations of age, methylene chloride, BMI, and four other toxics (propylene dichloride, ethylene dibromide, ethylidene dichloride, styrene) related to overall breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS Some non-metallic air toxics, particularly methylene chloride, were associated with the hazard for overall and ER+ breast cancer. Overweight/obese women may be particularly susceptible to air toxics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Niehoff
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America.
| | - Marilie D Gammon
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Alexander P Keil
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Hazel B Nichols
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Lawrence S Engel
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Dale P Sandler
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States of America
| | - Alexandra J White
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nakai M, Tsubokura M, Suzuki M, Fujishima S, Watanabe Y, Hasegawa Y, Oyama K, Ogura S. Genotoxicity of styrene oligomers extracted from polystyrene intended for use in contact with food. Toxicol Rep 2014; 1:1175-1180. [PMID: 28962327 PMCID: PMC5598101 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2014.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the genotoxicity of styrene oligomers extracted from polystyrene intended for use in contact with food. Compared with 50% ethanol, acetone extracted a far greater amount of styrene dimers and trimers from polystyrene. Ames tests and an in vitro chromosomal aberration test were negative. The risk of the genotoxicity of styrene oligomers migrated from polystyrene food packaging into food is likely very low.
Here, we conducted in vitro genotoxicity tests to evaluate the genotoxicity of styrene oligomers extracted from polystyrene intended for use in contact with food. Styrene oligomers were extracted with acetone and the extract was subjected to the Ames test (OECD test guideline No. 471) and the in vitro chromosomal aberration test (OECD test guideline No. 473) under good laboratory practice conditions. The concentrations of styrene dimers and trimers in the concentrated extract were 540 and 13,431 ppm, respectively. Extraction with acetone provided markedly higher concentrations of styrene oligomers compared with extraction with 50% ethanol aqueous solution, which is the food simulant currently recommended for use in safety assessments of polystyrene by both the United States Food and Drug Administration and the European Food Safety Authority. And these high concentrations of styrene dimers and trimers were utilized for the evaluation of genotoxicity in vitro. Ames tests using five bacterial tester strains were negative both in the presence or absence of metabolic activation. The in vitro chromosomal aberration test using Chinese hamster lung cells (CHL/IU) was also negative. Together, these results suggest that the risk of the genotoxicity of styrene oligomers that migrate from polystyrene food packaging into food is very low.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Nakai
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Hita, Hita-shi, Oita, Japan
| | - Mifumi Tsubokura
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Hita, Hita-shi, Oita, Japan
| | - Masaru Suzuki
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Hita, Hita-shi, Oita, Japan
| | - Saori Fujishima
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Hita, Hita-shi, Oita, Japan
| | - Yoichi Watanabe
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Kurume, Kurume-shi, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yu Hasegawa
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Kurume, Kurume-shi, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Oyama
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Kurume, Kurume-shi, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shozo Ogura
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, CERI Hita, Hita-shi, Oita, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ekenga CC, Parks CG, D'Aloisio AA, DeRoo LA, Sandler DP. Breast cancer risk after occupational solvent exposure: the influence of timing and setting. Cancer Res 2014; 74:3076-83. [PMID: 24879566 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-2430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organic solvents are ubiquitous in occupational settings where they may contribute to risks for carcinogenesis. However, there is limited information on organic solvents as human breast carcinogens. We examined the relationship between occupational exposure to solvents and breast cancer in a prospective study of 47,661 women with an occupational history in the Sister Study cohort. Occupational solvent exposure was categorized using self-reported job-specific solvent use collected at baseline. Multivariable Cox regression analyses were used to assess breast cancer risk, adjusting for established breast cancer risk factors. A total of 1,798 women were diagnosed with breast cancer during follow-up, including 1,255 invasive cases. Overall the risk of invasive breast cancer was not associated with lifetime exposure to solvents [HR, 1.04; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.88-1.24]. Parous women who worked with solvents before their first full-term birth had an increased risk of estrogen receptor-positive invasive breast cancer compared with women who never worked with solvents (HR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.03-1.86). A significantly elevated risk for estrogen receptor-positive invasive breast cancer was associated with solvent exposure among clinical laboratory technologists and technicians (HR, 2.00; 95% CI, 1.07-3.73). Occupational exposure to solvents before first birth, a critical period of breast tissue differentiation, may result in increased vulnerability for breast cancer. Our findings suggest a need for future studies in this area to focus on exposure time windows and solvent types in different occupational settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine C Ekenga
- Authors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Christine G Parks
- Authors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Aimee A D'Aloisio
- Authors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lisa A DeRoo
- Authors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, NorwayAuthors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Dale P Sandler
- Authors' Affiliations: Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; and Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mertl J, Kirchnawy C, Osorio V, Grininger A, Richter A, Bergmair J, Pyerin M, Washüttl M, Tacker M. Characterization of estrogen and androgen activity of food contact materials by different in vitro bioassays (YES, YAS, ERα and AR CALUX) and chromatographic analysis (GC-MS, HPLC-MS). PLoS One 2014; 9:e100952. [PMID: 25000404 PMCID: PMC4085075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocrine active substances (EAS) show structural similarities to natural hormones and are suspected to affect the human endocrine system by inducing hormone dependent effects. Recent studies with in vitro tests suggest that EAS can leach from packaging into food and may therefore pose a risk to human health. Sample migrates from food contact materials were tested for estrogen and androgen agonists and antagonists with different commonly used in vitro tests. Additionally, chemical trace analysis by GC-MS and HPLC-MS was used to identify potential hormone active substances in sample migrates. A GC-MS method to screen migrates for 29 known or potential endocrine active substances was established and validated. Samples were migrated according to EC 10/2011, concentrated by solid phase extraction and tested with estrogen and androgen responsive reporter gene assays based on yeast cells (YES and YAS) or human osteoblast cells (ERα and AR CALUX). A high level of agreement between the different bioassays could be observed by screening for estrogen agonists. Four out of 18 samples tested showed an estrogen activity in a similar range in both, YES and ERα CALUX. Two more samples tested positive in ERα CALUX due to the lower limits of detection in this assay. Androgen agonists could not be detected in any of the tested samples, neither with YAS nor with AR CALUX. When testing for antagonists, significant differences between yeast and human cell-based bioassays were noticed. Using YES and YAS many samples showed a strong antagonistic activity which was not observed using human cell-based CALUX assays. By GC-MS, some known or supposed EAS were identified in sample migrates that showed a biological activity in the in vitro tests. However, no firm conclusions about the sources of the observed hormone activity could be obtained from the chemical results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Mertl
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Kirchnawy
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronica Osorio
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Angelika Grininger
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Richter
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Bergmair
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Pyerin
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Washüttl
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Tacker
- OFI - Austrian Research Institute for Chemistry and Technology, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fucic A, Gamulin M, Ferencic Z, Katic J, Krayer von Krauss M, Bartonova A, Merlo DF. Environmental exposure to xenoestrogens and oestrogen related cancers: reproductive system, breast, lung, kidney, pancreas, and brain. Environ Health 2012; 11 Suppl 1:S8. [PMID: 22759508 PMCID: PMC3388472 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-11-s1-s8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The role of steroids in carcinogenesis has become a major concern in environmental protection, biomonitoring, and clinical research. Although historically oestrogen has been related to development of reproductive system, research over the last decade has confirmed its crucial role in the development and homeostasis of other organ systems. As a number of anthropogenic agents are xenoestrogens, environmental health research has focused on oestrogen receptor level disturbances and of aromatase polymorphisms. Oestrogen and xenoestrogens mediate critical points in carcinogenesis by binding to oestrogen receptors, whose distribution is age-, gender-, and tissue-specific. This review brings data about cancer types whose eatiology may be found in environmental exposure to xenoestrogens. Cancer types that have been well documented in literature to be related with environmental exposure include the reproductive system, breast, lung, kidney, pancreas, and brain. The results of our data mining show (a) a significant correlation between exposure to xenoestrogens and increased, gender-related, cancer risk and (b) a need to re-evaluate agents so far defined as endocrine disruptors, as they are also key molecules in carcinogenesis. This revision may be used to further research of cancer aetiology and to improvement of related legislation. Investigation of cancers caused by xenoestrogens may elucidate yet unknown mechanisms also valuable for oncology and the development of new therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Fucic
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Ksaverska c 2, Croatia
| | - Marija Gamulin
- University Hospital “Zagreb”, Zagreb, Kispaticeva 12, Croatia
| | - Zeljko Ferencic
- Children’s Hospital “Srebrnjak”, Zagreb, Srebrnjak 100, Croatia
| | - Jelena Katic
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Ksaverska c 2, Croatia
| | | | - Alena Bartonova
- NILU – Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller, Norway
| | - Domenico F Merlo
- National Institute for Cancer Research, Genoa, Largo R. Benzi 10, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Yanagiba Y, Ito Y, Yamanoshita O, Zhang SY, Watanabe G, Taya K, Li CM, Inotsume Y, Kamijima M, Gonzalez FJ, Nakajima T. Styrene trimer may increase thyroid hormone levels via down-regulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) target gene UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:740-5. [PMID: 18560529 PMCID: PMC2430229 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Accepted: 02/26/2008] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Styrene trimers (STs) are polystyrene-container-eluted materials that are sometimes detected in packaged foods. Although the possible endocrine-disrupting effects of STs, such as estrogenic activities, have been reported, their potential thyroid toxicity, such as that caused by the related endocrine disruptor 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), has not been studied in detail. OBJECTIVE Using wild-type and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr)-null mice, we investigated whether 2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexene (ST-1), an isomer of STs, influences thyroxin (T(4)) levels in the same manner as TCDD, which induces UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) via the AhR, resulting in a decrease in T(4) levels in the plasma of mice. METHODS Both wild-type and Ahr-null mice (five mice per group) were treated for 4 days by gavage with ST-1 (0, 32, or 64 micromol/kg). RESULTS High-dose (64 micromol/kg) ST-1 decreased the expression of AhR, cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1/2, UGT1A1/A6, and CYP2B10 mRNAs and the enzyme activity for CYP1A and UGT1A only in the wild-type mice. This dose decreased AhR DNA binding, but paradoxically increased AhR translocation to the nucleus. In contrast, a high dose of ST-1 increased T(4) levels in the plasma in wild-type mice but did not influence T(4) levels in AhR-null mice. CONCLUSIONS Although ST-1 treatment might cause an increase in AhR levels in the nucleus by inhibiting AhR export, this chemical down-regulated AhR mRNA, thus leading to down-regulation of AhR target genes and an increase in plasma T(4) levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukie Yanagiba
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yuki Ito
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Osamu Yamanoshita
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life and Health Science, Chubu University, Kasugai, Japan
| | - Shu-Yun Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Gen Watanabe
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Taya
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chun Mei Li
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yuko Inotsume
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Michihiro Kamijima
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Frank J. Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Tamie Nakajima
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- Address correspondence to T. Nakajima, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8550 Japan. Telephone: 81-52-744-2122. Fax: 81-52-744-2126. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kitamura S, Ohmegi M, Sanoh S, Sugihara K, Yoshihara S, Fujimoto N, Ohta S. Estrogenic activity of styrene oligomers after metabolic activation by rat liver microsomes. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2003; 111:329-34. [PMID: 12611662 PMCID: PMC1241390 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.5723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study we examined estrogenic activity of styrene oligomers after metabolic activation by rat liver microsomes. Trans-1,2-diphenylcyclobutane (TCB), cis-1,2-diphenylcyclobutane (CCB), 1,3-diphenylpropane, 2,4-diphenyl-1-butene, 2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexene, and 1-alpha-phenyl-4ss-(1 -phenylethyl)tetralin were negative in the yeast estrogen screening assay and estrogen reporter assay using estrogen-responsive human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. However, TCB exhibited estrogenic activity after incubation with liver microsomes of phenobarbital-treated rats in the presence of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). Minor activity was observed when liver microsomes of untreated or 3-methylcholanthrene-treated rats were used instead of those from phenobarbital-treated rats. CCB, 1,3-diphenylpropane, and 2,4-diphenyl-1-butene also exhibited estrogenic activity after metabolic activation by liver microsomes, but the activity was lower than that of TCB. 2,4,6-Triphenyl-1-hexene and 1-alpha-phenyl-4ss-(1 -phenylethyl)tetralin did not show estrogenic activity after such incubation. When TCB was incubated with liver microsomes of phenobarbital-treated rats in the presence of NADPH, three metabolites were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). One metabolite isolated by HPLC exhibited a significant estrogenic activity. The active metabolite was identified as trans-1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-phenylcyclobutane by mass and nuclear magnetic resonance spectral analysis. These results suggest that the estrogenic activity of TCB was caused by the formation of the 4-hydroxylated metabolite.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shigeyuki Kitamura
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Hiroshima University School of Medicine, Hiroshima, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ohyama KI, Nagai F. Estrogenicity of Styrene Oligomers: Response to Ohno et al. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2002; 110:A385-A386. [PMID: 28319026 PMCID: PMC1240932 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.110-a385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ken-ichi Ohyama
- Tokyo Metropolitan Research Laboratory of Public Health, Tokyo, Japan,
E-mail:
| | - Fumiko Nagai
- Tokyo Metropolitan Research Laboratory of Public Health, Tokyo, Japan,
E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|