Dynamics and impact of homologous recombination on the evolution of Legionella pneumophila

Amoebae as training grounds for microbial pathogens

Grazing of amoebae on microorganisms represents one of the oldest predator-prey dynamic relationships in nature. It represents a genetic "melting pot" for an ancient and continuous multi-directional inter- and intra-kingdom horizontal gene transfer between amoebae and its preys, intracellular microbial residents, endosymbionts, and giant viruses, which has shaped the evolution, selection, and adaptation of microbes that evade degradation by predatory amoeba. Unicellular phagocytic amoebae are thought to be the ancient ancestors of macrophages with highly conserved eukaryotic processes. Selection and evolution of microbes within amoeba through their evolution to target highly conserved eukaryotic processes have facilitated the expansion of their host range to mammals, causing various infectious diseases. Legionella and environmental Chlamydia harbor an immense number of eukaryotic-like proteins that are involved in ubiquitin-related processes or are tandem repeats-containing proteins involved in protein-protein and protein-chromatin interactions. Some of these eukaryotic-like proteins exhibit novel domain architecture and novel enzymatic functions absent in mammalian cells, such as ubiquitin ligases, likely acquired from amoebae. Mammalian cells and amoebae may respond similarly to microbial factors that target highly conserved eukaryotic processes, but mammalian cells may undergo an accidental response to amoeba-adapted microbial factors. We discuss specific examples of microbes that have evolved to evade amoeba predation, including the bacterial pathogens- Legionella, Chlamydia, Coxiella, Rickettssia, Francisella, Mycobacteria, Salmonella, Bartonella, Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Helicobacter, Campylobacter, and Aliarcobacter. We also discuss the fungi Cryptococcus, and Asperigillus, as well as amoebae mimiviruses/giant viruses. We propose that amoeba-microbe interactions will continue to be a major "training ground" for the evolution, selection, adaptation, and emergence of microbial pathogens equipped with unique pathogenic tools to infect mammalian hosts. However, our progress will continue to be highly dependent on additional genomic, biochemical, and cellular data of unicellular eukaryotes.

Impact of Homologous Recombination on Core Genome Evolution and Host Adaptation of Pectobacterium parmentieri

Homologous recombination is a major force mechanism driving bacterial evolution, host adaptability, and acquisition of novel virulence traits. Pectobacterium parmentieri is a plant bacterial pathogen distributed worldwide, primarily affecting potatoes, by causing soft rot and blackleg diseases. The goal of this investigation was to understand the impact of homologous recombination on the genomic evolution of P. parmentieri. Analysis of P. parmentieri genomes using Roary revealed a dynamic pan-genome with 3,742 core genes and over 55% accessory genome variability. Bayesian population structure analysis identified 7 lineages, indicating species heterogeneity. ClonalFrameML analysis displayed 5,125 recombination events, with the lineage 4 exhibiting the highest events. fastGEAR analysis identified 486 ancestral and 941 recent recombination events ranging from 43 bp to 119 kb and 36 bp to 13.96 kb, respectively, suggesting ongoing adaptation. Notably, 11% (412 genes) of the core genome underwent recent recombination, with lineage 1 as the main donor. The prevalence of recent recombination (double compared to ancient) events implies continuous adaptation, possibly driven by global potato trade. Recombination events were found in genes involved in vital cellular processes (DNA replication, DNA repair, RNA processing, homeostasis, and metabolism), pathogenicity determinants (type secretion systems, cell-wall degrading enzymes, iron scavengers, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagellum, etc.), antimicrobial compounds (phenazine and colicin) and even CRISPR-Cas genes. Overall, these results emphasize the potential role of homologous recombination in P. parmentieri's evolutionary dynamics, influencing host colonization, pathogenicity, adaptive immunity, and ecological fitness.

Recombination as an enforcement mechanism of prosocial behavior in cooperating bacteria

Prosocial behavior is ubiquitous in nature despite the relative fitness costs carried by cooperative individuals. However, the stability of cooperation in populations is fragile and often maintained through enforcement. We propose that homologous recombination provides such a mechanism in bacteria. Using an agent-based model of recombination in bacteria playing a public goods game, we demonstrate how changes in recombination rates affect the proportion of cooperating cells. In our model, recombination converts cells to a different strategy, either freeloading (cheaters) or cooperation, based on the strategies of neighboring cells and recombination rate. Increasing the recombination rate expands the parameter space in which cooperators outcompete freeloaders. However, increasing the recombination rate alone is neither sufficient nor necessary. Intermediate benefits of cooperation, lower population viscosity, and greater population size can promote the evolution of cooperation from within populations of cheaters. Our findings demonstrate how recombination influences the persistence of cooperative behavior in bacteria.

Rapid adaptations of Legionella pneumophila to the human host

Legionella pneumophila are host-adapted bacteria that infect and reproduce primarily in amoeboid protists. Using similar infection mechanisms, they infect human macrophages, and cause Legionnaires' disease, an atypical pneumonia, and the milder Pontiac fever. We hypothesized that, despite the similarities in infection mechanisms, the hosts are different enough that there exist high-selective value mutations that would dramatically increase the fitness of Legionella inside the human host. By comparing a large number of isolates from independent infections, we identified two genes, mutated in three unrelated patients, despite the short duration of the incubation period (2-14 days). One is a gene coding for an outer membrane protein (OMP) belonging to the OmpP1/FadL family. The other is a gene coding for an EAL-domain-containing protein involved in cyclic-di-GMP regulation, which in turn modulates flagellar activity. The clinical strain, carrying the mutated EAL-domain-containing homologue, grows faster in macrophages than the wild-type strain, and thus appears to be better adapted to the human host. As human-to-human transmission is very rare, fixation of these mutations into the population and spread into the environment is unlikely. Therefore, parallel evolution - here mutations in the same genes observed in independent human infections - could point to adaptations to the accidental human host. These results suggest that despite the ability of L. pneumophila to infect, replicate in and exit from macrophages, its human-specific adaptations are unlikely to be fixed in the population.

The Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm type IV secretion system and its effectors

To prevail in the interaction with eukaryotic hosts, many bacterial pathogens use protein secretion systems to release virulence factors at the host–pathogen interface and/or deliver them directly into host cells. An outstanding example of the complexity and sophistication of secretion systems and the diversity of their protein substrates, effectors, is the Defective in organelle trafficking/Intracellular multiplication (Dot/Icm) Type IVB secretion system (T4BSS) of Legionella pneumophila and related species. Legionella species are facultative intracellular pathogens of environmental protozoa and opportunistic human respiratory pathogens. The Dot/Icm T4BSS translocates an exceptionally large number of effectors, more than 300 per L. pneumophila strain, and is essential for evasion of phagolysosomal degradation and exploitation of protozoa and human macrophages as replicative niches. Recent technological advancements in the imaging of large protein complexes have provided new insight into the architecture of the T4BSS and allowed us to propose models for the transport mechanism. At the same time, significant progress has been made in assigning functions to about a third of L. pneumophila effectors, discovering unprecedented new enzymatic activities and concepts of host subversion. In this review, we describe the current knowledge of the workings of the Dot/Icm T4BSS machinery and provide an overview of the activities and functions of the to-date characterized effectors in the interaction of L. pneumophila with host cells.

A Tale of Four Danish Cities: Legionella pneumophila Diversity in Domestic Hot Water and Spatial Variations in Disease Incidence

Denmark has one of the highest Legionnaires' disease notification rates within Europe, averaging 4.7 cases per 100,000 population annually (2017 to 2020). The relatively high incidence of disease is not uniform across the country, and approximately 70% of all domestically acquired cases in Denmark are caused by Legionella pneumophila (LP) strains that are considered less virulent. The aim of this study was to investigate if colonization rates, levels of colonization, and/or types of LP present in hot water systems were associated with geographic differences in Legionnaires' disease incidence. Domestic water systems from four cities in Denmark were analyzed via culture and qPCR. Serogrouping and sequence typing was performed on randomly selected isolates. Single nucleotide polymorphism was used to identify clonal relationship among isolates from the four cities. The results revealed a high LP colonization rate from 68% to 87.5% among systems, composed primarily of non-serogroup 1. LP serogroup 1 reacting with the monoclonal antibody (MAb) 3/1 was not identified in any of the systems tested, while MAb 3/1 negative serogroup 1 strains were isolated from 10 systems (9.6%). We hypothesize that a combination of factors influences the incidence rate of LD in each city, including sequence type and serogroup distribution, colonization rate, concentration of Legionella in Pre-flush and Flush samples, and potentially building characteristics such as water temperature measured at the point of use.

Population analysis of Legionella pneumophila reveals a basis for resistance to complement-mediated killing

Legionella pneumophila is the most common cause of the severe respiratory infection known as Legionnaires' disease. However, the microorganism is typically a symbiont of free-living amoeba, and our understanding of the bacterial factors that determine human pathogenicity is limited. Here we carried out a population genomic study of 902 L. pneumophila isolates from human clinical and environmental samples to examine their genetic diversity, global distribution and the basis for human pathogenicity. We find that the capacity for human disease is representative of the breadth of species diversity although some clones are more commonly associated with clinical infections. We identified a single gene (lag-1) to be most strongly associated with clinical isolates. lag-1, which encodes an O-acetyltransferase for lipopolysaccharide modification, has been distributed horizontally across all major phylogenetic clades of L. pneumophila by frequent recent recombination events. The gene confers resistance to complement-mediated killing in human serum by inhibiting deposition of classical pathway molecules on the bacterial surface. Furthermore, acquisition of lag-1 inhibits complement-dependent phagocytosis by human neutrophils, and promoted survival in a mouse model of pulmonary legionellosis. Thus, our results reveal L. pneumophila genetic traits linked to disease and provide a molecular basis for resistance to complement-mediated killing.

Development of a multiplex-PCR serotyping assay for characterizing Legionella pneumophila serogroups based on the diversity of LPS biosynthetic loci

Legionella pneumophila, which is the main cause of Legionnaires' disease, comprises at least 15 serogroups (SGs). We show here the diversity of LPS biosynthetic loci among serogroups and describe the development of a PCR serotyping assay for 15 SGs based on the sequences of LPS biosynthetic loci. Using this multiplex-PCR (M-PCR) system, serogroup(s) were detected using primers that specifically amplify the sequences of SG1, SG2, SG5, SG7, SG8, SG9, SG11, SG13, SG3/15, and SG6/12. When PCR products of the expected sizes were not detected, we used primers that identified SG4/10/14. The PCR serotyping system specifically amplified the sequences corresponding SGs of 238 L. pneumophila strains. This method will be very useful for conducting epidemiological studies and investigating outbreak of Legionnaires' disease.

One is not enough: On the effects of reference genome for the mapping and subsequent analyses of short-reads

Mapping of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) reads to a single arbitrary reference genome is a frequently used approach in microbial genomics. However, the choice of a reference may represent a source of errors that may affect subsequent analyses such as the detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and phylogenetic inference. In this work, we evaluated the effect of reference choice on short-read sequence data from five clinically and epidemiologically relevant bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens). Publicly available whole-genome assemblies encompassing the genomic diversity of these species were selected as reference sequences, and read alignment statistics, SNP calling, recombination rates, dN/dS ratios, and phylogenetic trees were evaluated depending on the mapping reference. The choice of different reference genomes proved to have an impact on almost all the parameters considered in the five species. In addition, these biases had potential epidemiological implications such as including/excluding isolates of particular clades and the estimation of genetic distances. These findings suggest that the single reference approach might introduce systematic errors during mapping that affect subsequent analyses, particularly for data sets with isolates from genetically diverse backgrounds. In any case, exploring the effects of different references on the final conclusions is highly recommended.

Mapping consists in the alignment of reads (i.e., DNA fragments) obtained through high-throughput genome sequencing to a previously assembled reference sequence. It is a common practice in genomic studies to use a single reference for mapping, usually the ‘reference genome’ of a species—a high-quality assembly. However, the selection of an optimal reference is hindered by intrinsic intra-species genetic variability, particularly in bacteria. It is known that genetic differences between the reference genome and the read sequences may produce incorrect alignments during mapping. Eventually, these errors could lead to misidentification of variants and biased reconstruction of phylogenetic trees (which reflect ancestry between different bacterial lineages). To our knowledge, this is the first work to systematically examine the effect of different references for mapping on the inference of tree topology as well as the impact on recombination and natural selection inferences. Furthermore, the novelty of this work relies on a procedure that guarantees that we are evaluating only the effect of the reference. This effect has proved to be pervasive in the five bacterial species that we have studied and, in some cases, alterations in phylogenetic trees could lead to incorrect epidemiological inferences. Hence, the use of different reference genomes may be prescriptive to assess the potential biases of mapping.

An Evolutionary Arms Race Between Burkholderia pseudomallei and Host Immune System: What Do We Know?

A better understanding of co-evolution between pathogens and hosts holds promise for better prevention and control strategies. This review will explore the interactions between Burkholderia pseudomallei, an environmental and opportunistic pathogen, and the human host immune system. B. pseudomallei causes "Melioidosis," a rapidly fatal tropical infectious disease predicted to affect 165,000 cases annually worldwide, of which 89,000 are fatal. Genetic heterogeneities were reported in both B. pseudomallei and human host population, some of which may, at least in part, contribute to inter-individual differences in disease susceptibility. Here, we review (i) a multi-host-pathogen characteristic of the interaction; (ii) selection pressures acting on B. pseudomallei and human genomes with the former being driven by bacterial adaptation across ranges of ecological niches while the latter are driven by human encounter of broad ranges of pathogens; (iii) the mechanisms that generate genetic diversity in bacterial and host population particularly in sequences encoding proteins functioning in host-pathogen interaction; (iv) reported genetic and structural variations of proteins or molecules observed in B. pseudomallei-human host interactions and their implications in infection outcomes. Together, these predict bacterial and host evolutionary trajectory which continues to generate genetic diversity in bacterium and operates host immune selection at the molecular level.

Transposon Insertion Sequencing in a Clinical Isolate of Legionella pneumophila Identifies Essential Genes and Determinants of Natural Transformation

Legionella pneumophila is the etiologic agent of a severe form of nosocomial and community-acquired pneumonia in humans. The environmental life traits of L. pneumophila are essential to its ability to accidentally infect humans.

Legionella pneumophila is a Gram-negative bacterium ubiquitous in freshwater environments which, if inhaled, can cause a severe pneumonia in humans. The emergence of L. pneumophila is linked to several traits selected in the environment, the acquisition of some of which involved intra- and interkingdom horizontal gene transfer events. Transposon insertion sequencing (TIS) is a powerful method to identify the genetic basis of selectable traits as well as to identify fitness determinants and essential genes, which are possible antibiotic targets. TIS has not yet been used to its full power in L. pneumophila, possibly because of the difficulty of obtaining a high-saturation transposon insertion library. Indeed, we found that isolates of sequence type 1 (ST1), which includes the commonly used laboratory strains, are poorly permissive to saturating mutagenesis by conjugation-mediated transposon delivery. In contrast, we obtained high-saturation libraries in non-ST1 clinical isolates, offering the prospect of using TIS on unaltered L. pneumophila strains. Focusing on one of them, we then used TIS to identify essential genes in L. pneumophila. We also revealed that TIS could be used to identify genes controlling vertical transmission of mobile genetic elements. We then applied TIS to identify all the genes required for L. pneumophila to develop competence and undergo natural transformation, defining the set of major and minor type IV pilins that are engaged in DNA uptake. This work paves the way for the functional exploration of the L. pneumophila genome by TIS and the identification of the genetic basis of other life traits of this species.

IMPORTANCELegionella pneumophila is the etiologic agent of a severe form of nosocomial and community-acquired pneumonia in humans. The environmental life traits of L. pneumophila are essential to its ability to accidentally infect humans. A comprehensive identification of their genetic basis could be obtained through the use of transposon insertion sequencing. However, this powerful approach had not been fully implemented in L. pneumophila. Here, we describe the successful implementation of the transposon-sequencing approach in a clinical isolate of L. pneumophila. We identify essential genes, potential drug targets, and genes required for horizontal gene transfer by natural transformation. This work represents an important step toward identifying the genetic basis of the many life traits of this environmental and pathogenic species.

Beyond the pan-genome: current perspectives on the functional and practical outcomes of the distributed genome hypothesis

The principle of monoclonality with regard to bacterial infections was considered immutable prior to 30 years ago. This view, espoused by Koch for acute infections, has proven inadequate regarding chronic infections as persistence requires multiple forms of heterogeneity among the bacterial population. This understanding of bacterial plurality emerged from a synthesis of what-were-then novel technologies in molecular biology and imaging science. These technologies demonstrated that bacteria have complex life cycles, polymicrobial ecologies, and evolve in situ via the horizontal exchange of genic characters. Thus, there is an ongoing generation of diversity during infection that results in far more highly complex microbial communities than previously envisioned. This perspective is based on the fundamental tenet that the bacteria within an infecting population display genotypic diversity, including gene possession differences, which result from horizontal gene transfer mechanisms including transformation, conjugation, and transduction. This understanding is embodied in the concepts of the supragenome/pan-genome and the distributed genome hypothesis (DGH). These paradigms have fostered multiple researches in diverse areas of bacterial ecology including host-bacterial interactions covering the gamut of symbiotic relationships including mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. With regard to the human host, within each of these symbiotic relationships all bacterial species possess attributes that contribute to colonization and persistence; those species/strains that are pathogenic also encode traits for invasion and metastases. Herein we provide an update on our understanding of bacterial plurality and discuss potential applications in diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccinology based on perspectives provided by the DGH with regard to the evolution of pathogenicity.

Diversity and evolution of surface polysaccharide synthesis loci in Enterobacteriales

Bacterial capsules and lipopolysaccharides are diverse surface polysaccharides (SPs) that serve as the frontline for interactions with the outside world. While SPs can evolve rapidly, their diversity and evolutionary dynamics across different taxonomic scales has not been investigated in detail. Here, we focused on the bacterial order Enterobacteriales (including the medically relevant Enterobacteriaceae), to carry out comparative genomics of two SP locus synthesis regions, cps and kps, using 27,334 genomes from 45 genera. We identified high-quality cps loci in 22 genera and kps in 11 genera, around 4% of which were detected in multiple species. We found SP loci to be highly dynamic genetic entities: their evolution was driven by high rates of horizontal gene transfer (HGT), both of whole loci and component genes, and relaxed purifying selection, yielding large repertoires of SP diversity. In spite of that, we found the presence of (near-)identical locus structures in distant taxonomic backgrounds that could not be explained by recent exchange, pointing to long-term selective preservation of locus structures in some populations. Our results reveal differences in evolutionary dynamics driving SP diversity within different bacterial species, with lineages of Escherichia coli, Enterobacter hormaechei and Klebsiella aerogenes most likely to share SP loci via recent exchange; and lineages of Salmonella enterica, Citrobacter sakazakii and Serratia marcescens most likely to share SP loci via other mechanisms such as long-term preservation. Overall, the evolution of SP loci in Enterobacteriales is driven by a range of evolutionary forces and their dynamics and relative importance varies between different species.

Genomic Epidemiology and Evolution of Diverse Lineages of Clinical Campylobacter jejuni Cocirculating in New Hampshire, USA, 2017

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the leading causes of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. In the United States, New Hampshire was one of the 18 states that reported cases in the 2016 to 2018 multistate outbreak of multidrug-resistant C. jejuni. Here, we aimed to elucidate the baseline diversity of the wider New Hampshire C. jejuni population during the outbreak. We used genome sequences of 52 clinical isolates sampled in New Hampshire in 2017, including 1 of the 2 isolates from the outbreak.

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the leading causes of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. In the United States, New Hampshire was one of the 18 states that reported cases in the 2016 to 2018 multistate outbreak of multidrug-resistant C. jejuni. Here, we aimed to elucidate the baseline diversity of the wider New Hampshire C. jejuni population during the outbreak. We used genome sequences of 52 clinical isolates sampled in New Hampshire in 2017, including 1 of the 2 isolates from the outbreak. Results revealed a remarkably diverse population composed of at least 28 sequence types, which are mostly represented by 1 or a few strains. A comparison of our isolates with 249 clinical C. jejuni from other states showed frequent phylogenetic intermingling, suggesting a lack of geographical structure and minimal local diversification within the state. Multiple independent acquisitions of resistance genes from 5 classes of antibiotics characterize the population, with 47/52 (90.4%) of the genomes carrying at least 1 horizontally acquired resistance gene. Frequently recombining genes include those associated with heptose biosynthesis, colonization, and stress resistance. We conclude that the diversity of clinical C. jejuni in New Hampshire in 2017 was driven mainly by the coexistence of phylogenetically diverse antibiotic-resistant lineages, widespread geographical mixing, and frequent recombination. This study provides an important baseline census of the standing pangenomic variation and drug resistance to aid the development of a statewide database for epidemiological studies and clinical decision making. Continued genomic surveillance will be necessary to accurately assess how the population of C. jejuni changes over the long term.

Type I-F CRISPR-Cas Distribution and Array Dynamics in Legionella pneumophila

In bacteria and archaea, several distinct types of CRISPR-Cas systems provide adaptive immunity through broadly similar mechanisms: short nucleic acid sequences derived from foreign DNA, known as spacers, engage in complementary base pairing with invasive genetic elements setting the stage for nucleases to degrade the target DNA. A hallmark of type I CRISPR-Cas systems is their ability to acquire spacers in response to both new and previously encountered invaders (naïve and primed acquisition, respectively). Our phylogenetic analyses of 43 L. pneumophila type I-F CRISPR-Cas systems and their resident genomes suggest that many of these systems have been horizontally acquired. These systems are frequently encoded on plasmids and can co-occur with nearly identical chromosomal loci. We show that two such co-occurring systems are highly protective and undergo efficient primed acquisition in the lab. Furthermore, we observe that targeting by one system’s array can prime spacer acquisition in the other. Lastly, we provide experimental and genomic evidence for a model in which primed acquisition can efficiently replenish a depleted type I CRISPR array following a mass spacer deletion event.

Diverse conjugative elements silence natural transformation in Legionella species

Natural transformation is a major mechanism of horizontal gene transfer. Although the genes required for natural transformation are nearly ubiquitous in bacteria, it is commonly reported that some isolates of transformable species fail to transform. In Legionella pneumophila, we show that the inability of multiple clinical isolates to transform is caused by a conjugative element that shuts down expression of genes required for transformation. Diverse conjugative elements in the Legionella genus have adopted the same inhibition strategy. We propose that inhibition of natural transformation by episomal and integrated conjugative elements can explain the lack of transformability of isolates and also the apparent lack of natural transformation in some species.

Natural transformation (i.e., the uptake of DNA and its stable integration in the chromosome) is a major mechanism of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria. Although the vast majority of bacterial genomes carry the genes involved in natural transformation, close relatives of naturally transformable species often appear not competent for natural transformation. In addition, unexplained extensive variations in the natural transformation phenotype have been reported in several species. Here, we addressed this phenomenon by conducting a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on a panel of isolates of the opportunistic pathogen Legionella pneumophila. GWAS revealed that the absence of the transformation phenotype is associated with the conjugative plasmid pLPL. The plasmid inhibits transformation by simultaneously silencing the genes required for DNA uptake and recombination. We identified a small RNA (sRNA), RocRp, as the sole plasmid-encoded factor responsible for the silencing of natural transformation. RocRp is homologous to the highly conserved and chromosome-encoded sRNA RocR which controls the transient expression of the DNA uptake system. Assisted by the ProQ/FinO-domain RNA chaperone RocC, RocRp acts as a substitute of RocR, ensuring that the bacterial host of the conjugative plasmid does not become naturally transformable. Distinct homologs of this plasmid-encoded sRNA are found in diverse conjugative elements in other Legionella species. Their low to high prevalence may result in the lack of transformability of some isolates up to the apparent absence of natural transformation in the species. Generally, our work suggests that conjugative elements obscure the widespread occurrence of natural transformability in bacteria.

Atlas of group A streptococcal vaccine candidates compiled using large-scale comparative genomics

Group A Streptococcus (GAS; Streptococcus pyogenes) is a bacterial pathogen for which a commercial vaccine for humans is not available. Employing the advantages of high-throughput DNA sequencing technology to vaccine design, we have analyzed 2,083 globally sampled GAS genomes. The global GAS population structure reveals extensive genomic heterogeneity driven by homologous recombination and overlaid with high levels of accessory gene plasticity. We identified the existence of more than 290 clinically associated genomic phylogroups across 22 countries, highlighting challenges in designing vaccines of global utility. To determine vaccine candidate coverage, we investigated all of the previously described GAS candidate antigens for gene carriage and gene sequence heterogeneity. Only 15 of 28 vaccine antigen candidates were found to have both low naturally occurring sequence variation and high (>99%) coverage across this diverse GAS population. This technological platform for vaccine coverage determination is equally applicable to prospective GAS vaccine antigens identified in future studies.

Analysis of Genetic Characterization and Clonality of Legionella pneumophila Isolated from Cooling Towers in Japan

We investigated the genetic characteristics of 161 Legionella pneumophila strains isolated over a period of 10 years from cooling towers in Japan. Minimum spanning tree analysis based on the sequence-based typing (SBT) of them identified three clonal complexes (CCs); CC1 (105/161, 65.2%), CC2 (22 /161, 13.7%), and CC3 (20/161, 12.4%). CC1 was formed by serogroup (SG) 1 and SG7, whereas CC2 was mainly formed by SG1. All of the CC3 isolates except two strains were SG13. The major sequence types (STs) in CC1 and CC2 were ST1 (88/105, 83.8%) and ST154 (15/22, 68.2%), respectively. These STs are known as typical types of L. pneumophila SG1 in Japanese cooling tower. Additionally, we identified 15 strains of ST2603 as the major type in CC3. This ST has not been reported in Japanese cooling tower. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis of the representative strains in the three CCs, which were isolated from various cooling towers over the 10 years, elucidated high clonal population of L. pneumophila in Japanese cooling tower. Moreover, it revealed that the strains of CC2 are phylogenetically distant compared to those of CC1 and CC3, and belonged to L. pneumophila subsp. fraseri.

Within-Species Genomic Variation and Variable Patterns of Recombination in the Tetracycline Producer Streptomyces rimosus

Streptomyces rimosus is best known as the primary source of the tetracycline class of antibiotics, most notably oxytetracycline, which have been widely used against many gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens and protozoan parasites. However, despite the medical and agricultural importance of S. rimosus, little is known of its evolutionary history and genome dynamics. In this study, we aim to elucidate the pan-genome characteristics and phylogenetic relationships of 32 S. rimosus genomes. The S. rimosus pan-genome contains more than 22,000 orthologous gene clusters, and approximately 8.8% of these genes constitutes the core genome. A large part of the accessory genome is composed of 9,646 strain-specific genes. S. rimosus exhibits an open pan-genome (decay parameter α = 0.83) and high gene diversity between strains (genomic fluidity φ = 0.12). We also observed strain-level variation in the distribution and abundance of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) and that each individual S. rimosus genome has a unique repertoire of BGCs. Lastly, we observed variation in recombination, with some strains donating or receiving DNA more often than others, strains that tend to frequently recombine with specific partners, genes that often experience recombination more than others, and variable sizes of recombined DNA sequences. We conclude that the high levels of inter-strain genomic variation in S. rimosus is partly explained by differences in recombination among strains. These results have important implications on current efforts for natural drug discovery, the ecological role of strain-level variation in microbial populations, and addressing the fundamental question of why microbes have pan-genomes.

The Legionella effector LtpM is a new type of phosphoinositide-activated glucosyltransferase

Legionella pneumophila causes Legionnaires' disease, a severe form of pneumonia. L. pneumophila translocates more than 300 effectors into host cells via its Dot/Icm (Defective in organelle trafficking/Intracellular multiplication) type IV secretion system to enable its replication in target cells. Here, we studied the effector LtpM, which is encoded in a recombination hot spot in L. pneumophila Paris. We show that a C-terminal phosphoinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P)-binding domain, also found in otherwise unrelated effectors, targets LtpM to the Legionella-containing vacuole and to early and late endosomes. LtpM expression in yeast caused cytotoxicity. Sequence comparison and structural homology modeling of the N-terminal domain of LtpM uncovered a remote similarity to the glycosyltransferase (GT) toxin PaTox from the bacterium Photorhabdus asymbiotica; however, instead of the canonical DxD motif of GT-A type glycosyltransferases, essential for enzyme activity and divalent cation coordination, we found that a DxN motif is present in LtpM. Using UDP-glucose as sugar donor, we show that purified LtpM nevertheless exhibits glucohydrolase and autoglucosylation activity in vitro and demonstrate that PI3P binding activates LtpM's glucosyltransferase activity toward protein substrates. Substitution of the aspartate or the asparagine in the DxN motif abolished the activity of LtpM. Moreover, whereas all glycosyltransferase toxins and effectors identified so far depend on the presence of divalent cations, LtpM is active in their absence. Proteins containing LtpM-like GT domains are encoded in the genomes of other L. pneumophila isolates and species, suggesting that LtpM is the first member of a novel family of glycosyltransferase effectors employed to subvert hosts.

Genomic heterogeneity differentiates clinical and environmental subgroups of Legionella pneumophila sequence type 1

Legionella spp. are the cause of a severe bacterial pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease (LD). In some cases, current genetic subtyping methods cannot resolve LD outbreaks caused by common, potentially endemic L. pneumophila (Lp) sequence types (ST), which complicates laboratory investigations and environmental source attribution. In the United States (US), ST1 is the most prevalent clinical and environmental Lp sequence type. In order to characterize the ST1 population, we sequenced 289 outbreak and non-outbreak associated clinical and environmental ST1 and ST1-variant Lp strains from the US and, together with international isolate sequences, explored their genetic and geographic diversity. The ST1 population was highly conserved at the nucleotide level; 98% of core nucleotide positions were invariant and environmental isolates unassociated with human disease (n = 99) contained ~65% more nucleotide diversity compared to clinical-sporadic (n = 139) or outbreak-associated (n = 28) ST1 subgroups. The accessory pangenome of environmental isolates was also ~30-60% larger than other subgroups and was enriched for transposition and conjugative transfer-associated elements. Up to ~10% of US ST1 genetic variation could be explained by geographic origin, but considerable genetic conservation existed among strains isolated from geographically distant states and from different decades. These findings provide new insight into the ST1 population structure and establish a foundation for interpreting genetic relationships among ST1 strains; these data may also inform future analyses for improved outbreak investigations.

Legionella pneumophila and Other Legionella Species Isolated from Legionellosis Patients in Japan between 2008 and 2016

The Legionella Reference Center in Japan collected 427 Legionella clinical isolates between 2008 and 2016, including 7 representative isolates from corresponding outbreaks. The collection included 419 Legionella pneumophila isolates, of which 372 belonged to serogroup 1 (SG1) (87%) and the others belonged to SG2 to SG15 except for SG7 and SG11, and 8 isolates of other Legionella species (Legionella bozemanae, Legionella dumoffii, Legionella feeleii, Legionella longbeachae, Legionella londiniensis, and Legionella rubrilucens). L. pneumophila isolates were genotyped by sequence-based typing (SBT) and represented 187 sequence types (STs), of which 126 occurred in a single isolate (index of discrimination of 0.984). These STs were analyzed using minimum spanning tree analysis, resulting in the formation of 18 groups. The pattern of overall ST distribution among L. pneumophila isolates was diverse. In particular, some STs were frequently isolated and were suggested to be related to the infection sources. The major STs were ST23 (35 isolates), ST120 (20 isolates), and ST138 (16 isolates). ST23 was the most prevalent and most causative ST for outbreaks in Japan and Europe. ST138 has been observed only in Japan, where it has caused small-scale outbreaks; 81% of those strains (13 isolates) were suspected or confirmed to infect humans through bath water sources. On the other hand, 11 ST23 strains (31%) and 5 ST120 strains (25%) were suspected or confirmed to infect humans through bath water. These findings suggest that some ST strains frequently cause legionellosis in Japan and are found under different environmental conditions.IMPORTANCELegionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (SG1) is the most frequent cause of legionellosis. Our previous genetic analysis indicated that SG1 environmental isolates represented 8 major clonal complexes, consisting of 3 B groups, 2 C groups, and 3 S groups, which included major environmental isolates derived from bath water, cooling towers, and soil and puddles, respectively. Here, we surveyed clinical isolates collected from patients with legionellosis in Japan between 2008 and 2016. Most strains belonging to the B group were isolated from patients for whom bath water was the suspected or confirmed source of infection. Among the isolates derived from patients whose suspected infection source was soil or dust, most belonged to the S1 group and none belonged to the B or C groups. Additionally, the U group was discovered as a new group, which mainly included clinical isolates with unknown infection sources.

Targeting of RNA Polymerase II by a nuclear Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm effector SnpL

The intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila influences numerous eukaryotic cellular processes through the Dot/Icm-dependent translocation of more than 300 effector proteins into the host cell. Although many translocated effectors localise to the Legionella replicative vacuole, other effectors can affect remote intracellular sites. Following infection, a subset of effector proteins localises to the nucleus where they subvert host cell transcriptional responses to infection. Here, we identified Lpw27461 (Lpp2587), Lpg2519 as a new nuclear-localised effector that we have termed SnpL. Upon ectopic expression or during L. pneumophila infection, SnpL showed strong nuclear localisation by immunofluorescence microscopy but was excluded from nucleoli. Using immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, we determined the host-binding partner of SnpL as the eukaryotic transcription elongation factor, Suppressor of Ty5 (SUPT5H)/Spt5. SUPT5H is an evolutionarily conserved component of the DRB sensitivity-inducing factor complex that regulates RNA Polymerase II dependent mRNA processing and transcription elongation. Protein interaction studies showed that SnpL bound to the central Kyprides, Ouzounis, Woese motif region of SUPT5H. Ectopic expression of SnpL led to massive upregulation of host gene expression and macrophage cell death. The activity of SnpL further highlights the ability of L. pneumophila to control fundamental eukaryotic processes such as transcription that, in the case of SnpL, leads to global upregulation of host gene expression.