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Witwit H, Betancourt CA, Cubitt B, Khafaji R, Kowalski H, Jackson N, Ye C, Martinez-Sobrido L, de la Torre JC. Cellular N-Myristoyl Transferases Are Required for Mammarenavirus Multiplication. Viruses 2024; 16:1362. [PMID: 39339839 DOI: 10.3390/v16091362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2024] [Revised: 08/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The mammarenavirus matrix Z protein plays critical roles in virus assembly and cell egress. Meanwhile, heterotrimer complexes of a stable signal peptide (SSP) together with glycoprotein subunits GP1 and GP2, generated via co-and post-translational processing of the surface glycoprotein precursor GPC, form the spikes that decorate the virion surface and mediate virus cell entry via receptor-mediated endocytosis. The Z protein and the SSP undergo N-terminal myristoylation by host cell N-myristoyltransferases (NMT1 and NMT2), and G2A mutations that prevent myristoylation of Z or SSP have been shown to affect the Z-mediated virus budding and GP2-mediated fusion activity that is required to complete the virus cell entry process. In the present work, we present evidence that the validated on-target specific pan-NMT inhibitor DDD85646 exerts a potent antiviral activity against the prototypic mammarenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) that correlates with reduced Z budding activity and GP2-mediated fusion activity as well as with proteasome-mediated degradation of the Z protein. The potent anti-mammarenaviral activity of DDD85646 was also observed with the hemorrhagic-fever-causing Junin (JUNV) and Lassa (LASV) mammarenaviruses. Our results support the exploration of NMT inhibition as a broad-spectrum antiviral against human pathogenic mammarenaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haydar Witwit
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Beatrice Cubitt
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Roaa Khafaji
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Heinrich Kowalski
- Center for Medical Biochemistry, Max F. Perutz Laboratories (MFPL), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna Biocenter (VBC), 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Chengjin Ye
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
| | | | - Juan C de la Torre
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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2
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Rivière F, Dian C, Dutheil RF, Monassa P, Giglione C, Meinnel T. Novel, tightly structurally related N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors display equally potent yet distinct inhibitory mechanisms. Structure 2024:S0969-2126(24)00318-6. [PMID: 39208793 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2024.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
N-myristoyltransferases (NMTs) catalyze essential acylations of N-terminal alpha or epsilon amino groups of glycines or lysines. Here, we reveal that peptides tightly fitting the optimal glycine recognition pattern of human NMTs are potent prodrugs relying on a single-turnover mechanism. Sequence scanning of the inhibitory potency of the series closely reflects NMT glycine substrate specificity rules, with the lead inhibitor blocking myristoylation by NMTs of various species. We further redesigned the series based on the recently recognized lysine-myristoylation mechanism by taking advantage of (1) the optimal peptide chassis and (2) lysine side chain mimicry with unnatural enantiomers. Unlike the lead series, the inhibitory properties of the new compounds rely on the protonated state of the side chain amine, which stabilizes a salt bridge with the catalytic base at the active site. Our study provides the basis for designing first-in-class NMT inhibitors tailored for infectious diseases and alternative active site targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Rivière
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Cyril Dian
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Rémi F Dutheil
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Paul Monassa
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Carmela Giglione
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Thierry Meinnel
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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3
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Witwit H, Betancourt C, Cubitt B, Khafaji R, Kowalski H, Jackson N, Ye C, Martinez-Sobrido L, de la Torre JC. Cellular N-myristoyl transferases Are Required for Mammarenavirus Multiplication. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.01.606235. [PMID: 39211253 PMCID: PMC11361045 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.01.606235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The mammarenavirus matrix Z protein plays critical roles in virus assembly and cell egress, whereas heterotrimer complexes of a stable signal peptide (SSP) together with glycoprotein subunits GP1 and GP2, generated via co-and post-translational processing of the surface glycoprotein precursor GPC, form the spikes that decorate the virion surface and mediate virus cell entry via receptor-mediated endocytosis. The Z protein and SSP undergo N-terminal myristoylation by host cell N-myristoyltransferases (NMT1 and NMT2), and G2A mutations that prevent myristoylation of Z or SSP have been shown to affect Z mediated virus budding and GP2 mediated fusion activity required to complete the virus cell entry process. In the present work, we present evidence that the validated on-target specific pan NMT inhibitor DDD85464 exerts a potent antiviral activity against the prototypic mammarenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) that correlated with reduced Z budding activity and GP2 mediated fusion activity, as well as proteasome mediated degradation of the Z protein. The potent anti-mammarenaviral activity of DDD85646 was also observed with the hemorrhagic fever causing mammarenaviruses Junin (JUNV) and Lassa (LASV) viruses. Our results support exploration of NMT inhibition as a broad-spectrum antiviral against human pathogenic mammarenaviruses.
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4
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Mustière R, Dassonville-Klimpt A, Sonnet P. Aminopyridines in the development of drug candidates against protozoan neglected tropical diseases. Future Med Chem 2024; 16:1357-1373. [PMID: 39109436 PMCID: PMC11318709 DOI: 10.1080/17568919.2024.2359361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) pose a major threat in tropical zones for impoverished populations. Difficulty of access, adverse effects or low efficacy limit the use of current therapeutic options. Therefore, development of new drugs against NTDs is a necessity. Compounds containing an aminopyridine (AP) moiety are of great interest for the design of new anti-NTD drugs due to their intrinsic properties compared with their closest chemical structures. Currently, over 40 compounds with an AP moiety are on the market, but none is used against NTDs despite active research on APs. The aim of this review is to present the medicinal chemistry work carried out with these scaffolds, against protozoan NTDs: Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei or Leishmania spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Mustière
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
| | - Alexandra Dassonville-Klimpt
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
| | - Pascal Sonnet
- Université de Picardie-Jules-Verne, AGIR – Agents infectieux, RéSistance et chimiothérapie, UR 4294, UFR de pharmacie, 1, Rue des Louvels, F-80037 Amiens cedex 1, France
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5
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Marín M, López M, Gallego-Yerga L, Álvarez R, Peláez R. Experimental structure based drug design (SBDD) applications for anti-leishmanial drugs: A paradigm shift? Med Res Rev 2024; 44:1055-1120. [PMID: 38142308 DOI: 10.1002/med.22005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a group of neglected tropical diseases caused by at least 20 species of Leishmania protozoa, which are spread by the bite of infected sandflies. There are three main forms of the disease: cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL, the most common), visceral leishmaniasis (VL, also known as kala-azar, the most serious), and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. One billion people live in areas endemic to leishmaniasis, with an annual estimation of 30,000 new cases of VL and more than 1 million of CL. New treatments for leishmaniasis are an urgent need, as the existing ones are inefficient, toxic, and/or expensive. We have revised the experimental structure-based drug design (SBDD) efforts applied to the discovery of new drugs against leishmaniasis. We have grouped the explored targets according to the metabolic pathways they belong to, and the key achieved advances are highlighted and evaluated. In most cases, SBDD studies follow high-throughput screening campaigns and are secondary to pharmacokinetic optimization, due to the majoritarian belief that there are few validated targets for SBDD in leishmaniasis. However, some SBDD strategies have significantly contributed to new drug candidates against leishmaniasis and a bigger number holds promise for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Marín
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Tropicales de la Universidad de Salamanca (CIETUS), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Marta López
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Tropicales de la Universidad de Salamanca (CIETUS), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Laura Gallego-Yerga
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Tropicales de la Universidad de Salamanca (CIETUS), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Raquel Álvarez
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Tropicales de la Universidad de Salamanca (CIETUS), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Rafael Peláez
- Laboratorio de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación de Enfermedades Tropicales de la Universidad de Salamanca (CIETUS), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, Salamanca, Spain
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Hilaire V, Michel G, Majoor A, Hadji-Minaglou F, Landreau A, Fernandez X. New method for screening anti-Leishmania compounds in plants extracts by HPTLC-bioautography. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1188:123061. [PMID: 34894478 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.123061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Leishmania genus is responsible for leishmaniasis, a group of diseases affecting 12 million people in the tropical and subtropical zone. Currently, the few drugs that are available to treat this disease are expensive and cause many side effects. Searching for new therapeutics from plant species seems to be a promising path. This work proposes an original HPTLC test against parasites, in particular on Leishmania infantum, to screen new molecules from plant extracts. The technique uses protozoa transformed to express the luciferase gene to observe the bioautogram in bioluminescence. We have developed two different test protocols based on the two dimorphic stages of the parasite. The free promastigote stage, and an intracellular stage parasitizing macrophage cells called the amastigote stage. These two stages only survive under extremely different conditions which required the development of two very different test protocols. For the promastigote free stage of the protozoa, the direct bioautography technique was chosen while for the intracellular amastigote stage, bioautography by immersion (agar overlay) was required. Amphotericine B was chosen as the reference compound for this assay. The development of each of these two tests made it possible to clearly detect areas of activity on the bioautogram, allowing a rapid and inexpensive screening of the antiparasitic properties of molecules in natural extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Hilaire
- BotaniCert, 4 traverse Dupont, 06130 Grasse, France; Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, UMR 7272, Nice, France
| | - Gregory Michel
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inserm, U1065, C3M, Nice, France
| | - Alissa Majoor
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inserm, U1065, C3M, Nice, France
| | | | - Anne Landreau
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, UMR 7272, Nice, France; Univ Angers, Univ Brest, GEIHP, SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France
| | - Xavier Fernandez
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Nice, UMR 7272, Nice, France.
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Ullah I, Gahalawat S, Booshehri LM, Niederstrasser H, Majumdar S, Leija C, Bradford JM, Hu B, Ready JM, Wetzel DM. An Antiparasitic Compound from the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box Promotes Leishmania Tubulin Polymerization. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2057-2072. [PMID: 32686409 PMCID: PMC8059355 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The few frontline antileishmanial drugs are poorly effective and toxic. To search for new drugs for this neglected tropical disease, we tested the activity of compounds in the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) "Pathogen Box" against Leishmania amazonensis axenic amastigotes. Screening yielded six discovery antileishmanial compounds with EC50 values from 50 to 480 nM. Concentration-response assays demonstrated that the best hit, MMV676477, had mid-nanomolar cytocidal potency against intracellular Leishmania amastigotes, Trypanosoma brucei, and Plasmodium falciparum, suggesting broad antiparasitic activity. We explored structure-activity relationships (SAR) within a small group of MMV676477 analogs and observed a wide potency range (20-5000 nM) against axenic Leishmania amastigotes. Compared to MMV676477, our most potent analog, SW41, had ∼5-fold improved antileishmanial potency. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that MMV676477 selectively disrupts Leishmania tubulin dynamics. Morphological studies indicated that MMV676477 and analogs affected L. amazonensis during cell division. Differential centrifugation showed that MMV676477 promoted partitioning of cellular tubulin toward the polymeric form in parasites. Turbidity assays with purified Leishmania and porcine tubulin demonstrated that MMV676477 promoted leishmanial tubulin polymerization in a concentration-dependent manner. Analogs' antiparasitic activity correlated with their ability to facilitate purified Leishmania tubulin polymerization. Chemical cross-linking demonstrated binding of the MMV676477 scaffold to purified Leishmania tubulin, and competition studies established a correlation between binding and antileishmanial activity. Our studies demonstrate that MMV676477 is a potent antiparasitic compound that preferentially promotes Leishmania microtubule polymerization. Due to its selectivity for and broad-spectrum activity against multiple parasites, this scaffold shows promise for antiparasitic drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Ullah
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Suraksha Gahalawat
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Laela M. Booshehri
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Hanspeter Niederstrasser
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Shreoshi Majumdar
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Christopher Leija
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - James M. Bradford
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Bin Hu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Joseph M. Ready
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Dawn M. Wetzel
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
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Bell AS, Yu Z, Hutton JA, Wright MH, Brannigan JA, Paape D, Roberts SM, Sutherell CL, Ritzefeld M, Wilkinson AJ, Smith DF, Leatherbarrow RJ, Tate EW. Novel Thienopyrimidine Inhibitors of Leishmania N-Myristoyltransferase with On-Target Activity in Intracellular Amastigotes. J Med Chem 2020; 63:7740-7765. [PMID: 32575985 PMCID: PMC7383931 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The
leishmaniases, caused by Leishmania species
of protozoan parasites, are neglected tropical diseases with millions
of cases worldwide. Current therapeutic approaches are limited by
toxicity, resistance, and cost. N-Myristoyltransferase
(NMT), an enzyme ubiquitous and essential in all eukaryotes, has been
validated via genetic and pharmacological methods as a promising anti-leishmanial
target. Here we describe a comprehensive structure–activity
relationship (SAR) study of a thienopyrimidine series previously identified
in a high-throughput screen against Leishmania NMT,
across 68 compounds in enzyme- and cell-based assay formats. Using
a chemical tagging target engagement biomarker assay, we identify
the first inhibitor in this series with on-target NMT activity in
leishmania parasites. Furthermore, crystal structure analyses of 12
derivatives in complex with Leishmania major NMT revealed key factors important for future structure-guided optimization
delivering IMP-105 (43), a compound with modest activity
against Leishmania donovani intracellular
amastigotes and excellent selectivity (>660-fold) for Leishmania NMT over human NMTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Bell
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Zhiyong Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Jennie A Hutton
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Megan H Wright
- School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K. LS2 9JT
| | - James A Brannigan
- Structural Biology Laboratory, York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of York, York, U.K. YO10 5DD
| | - Daniel Paape
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, U.K. YO10 5NG
| | - Shirley M Roberts
- Structural Biology Laboratory, York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of York, York, U.K. YO10 5DD
| | - Charlotte L Sutherell
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Markus Ritzefeld
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Anthony J Wilkinson
- Structural Biology Laboratory, York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of York, York, U.K. YO10 5DD
| | - Deborah F Smith
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, U.K. YO10 5NG
| | - Robin J Leatherbarrow
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, London, U.K. W12 0BZ
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Paape D, Prendergast CT, Price HP, Doehl JSP, Smith DF. Genetic validation of Leishmania genes essential for amastigote survival in vivo using N-myristoyltransferase as a model. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:132. [PMID: 32171322 PMCID: PMC7071782 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-3999-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Proving that specific genes are essential for the intracellular viability of Leishmania parasites within macrophages remains a challenge for the identification of suitable targets for drug development. This is especially evident in the absence of a robust inducible expression system or functioning RNAi machinery that works in all Leishmania species. Currently, if a target gene of interest in extracellular parasites can only be deleted from its genomic locus in the presence of ectopic expression from a wild type copy, it is assumed that this gene will also be essential for viability in disease-promoting intracellular parasites. However, functional essentiality must be proven independently in both life-cycle stages for robust validation of the gene of interest as a putative target for chemical intervention. METHODS Here, we have used plasmid shuffle methods in vivo to provide supportive genetic evidence that N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) is essential for Leishmania viability throughout the parasite life-cycle. Following confirmation of NMT essentiality in vector-transmitted promastigotes, a range of mutant parasites were used to infect mice prior to negative selection pressure to test the hypothesis that NMT is also essential for parasite viability in an established infection. RESULTS Ectopically-expressed NMT was only dispensable under negative selection in the presence of another copy. Total parasite burdens in animals subjected to negative selection were comparable to control groups only if an additional NMT copy, not affected by the negative selection, was expressed. CONCLUSIONS NMT is an essential gene in all parasite life-cycle stages, confirming its role as a genetically-validated target for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Paape
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
- Present Address: Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA UK
| | - Catriona T. Prendergast
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
- Present Address: Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA UK
| | - Helen P. Price
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
- Present Address: Centre for Applied Entomology and Parasitology, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-under-Lyme, ST5 5BG UK
| | - Johannes S. P. Doehl
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - Deborah F. Smith
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
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10
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Zahid MSH, Johnson MM, Tokarski RJ, Satoskar AR, Fuchs JR, Bachelder EM, Ainslie KM. Evaluation of synergy between host and pathogen-directed therapies against intracellular Leishmania donovani. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2019; 10:125-132. [PMID: 31493763 PMCID: PMC6731340 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2019.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is associated with treatment complications due to the continued growth of resistant parasites toward currently available pathogen-directed therapeutics. To limit the emergence and combat resistant parasites there is a need to develop new anti-leishmanial drugs and alternative treatment approaches, such as host-directed therapeutics (HDTs). Discovery of new anti-leishmanial drugs including HDTs requires suitable in vitro assay systems. Herein, we modified and evaluated a series of resazurin assays against different life-stages of the VL causing parasite, Leishmania donovani to identify novel HDTs. We further analyzed the synergy of combinatorial interactions between traditionally used pathogen-directed drugs and HDTs for clearance of intracellular L. donovani. The inhibitory concentration at 50% (IC50) of the five evaluated therapies [amphotericin B (AMB), miltefosine, paromomycin, DNER-4, and AR-12 (OSU-03012)] was determined against promastigotes, extracellular amastigotes, and intracellular amastigotes of L. donovani via a resazurin-based assay and compared to image-based microscopy. Using the resazurin-based assay, all evaluated therapies showed reproducible anti-leishmanial activity against the parasite's different life-stages. These results were consistent to the traditional image-based technique. The gold standard of therapy, AMB, showed the highest potency against intracellular L. donovani, and was further evaluated for combinatorial effects with the HDTs. Among the combinations analyzed, pathogen-directed AMB and host-directed AR-12 showed a synergistic reduction of intracellular L. donovani compared to individual treatments. The modified resazurin assay used in this study demonstrated a useful technique to measure new anti-leishmanial drugs against both intracellular and extracellular parasites. The synergistic interactions between pathogen-directed AMB and host-directed AR-12 showed a great promise to combat VL, with the potential to reduce the emergence of drug-resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Shamim Hasan Zahid
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Monica M Johnson
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Robert J Tokarski
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Abhay R Satoskar
- Department of Pathology, Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - James R Fuchs
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Eric M Bachelder
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Kristy M Ainslie
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
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11
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Corpas-Lopez V, Moniz S, Thomas M, Wall RJ, Torrie LS, Zander-Dinse D, Tinti M, Brand S, Stojanovski L, Manthri S, Hallyburton I, Zuccotto F, Wyatt PG, De Rycker M, Horn D, Ferguson MAJ, Clos J, Read KD, Fairlamb AH, Gilbert IH, Wyllie S. Pharmacological Validation of N-Myristoyltransferase as a Drug Target in Leishmania donovani. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:111-122. [PMID: 30380837 PMCID: PMC6332449 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), caused by the protozoan parasites Leishmania donovani and L. infantum, is responsible for ∼30 000 deaths annually. Available treatments are inadequate, and there is a pressing need for new therapeutics. N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) remains one of the few genetically validated drug targets in these parasites. Here, we sought to pharmacologically validate this enzyme in Leishmania. A focused set of 1600 pyrazolyl sulfonamide compounds was screened against L. major NMT in a robust high-throughput biochemical assay. Several potent inhibitors were identified with marginal selectivity over the human enzyme. There was little correlation between the enzyme potency of these inhibitors and their cellular activity against L. donovani axenic amastigotes, and this discrepancy could be due to poor cellular uptake due to the basicity of these compounds. Thus, a series of analogues were synthesized with less basic centers. Although most of these compounds continued to suffer from relatively poor antileishmanial activity, our most potent inhibitor of LmNMT (DDD100097, K i of 0.34 nM) showed modest activity against L. donovani intracellular amastigotes (EC50 of 2.4 μM) and maintained a modest therapeutic window over the human enzyme. Two unbiased approaches, namely, screening against our cosmid-based overexpression library and thermal proteome profiling (TPP), confirm that DDD100097 (compound 2) acts on-target within parasites. Oral dosing with compound 2 resulted in a 52% reduction in parasite burden in our mouse model of VL. Thus, NMT is now a pharmacologically validated target in Leishmania. The challenge in finding drug candidates remains to identify alternative strategies to address the drop-off in activity between enzyme inhibition and in vitro activity while maintaining sufficient selectivity over the human enzyme, both issues that continue to plague studies in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoriano Corpas-Lopez
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Sonia Moniz
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Thomas
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. Wall
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Leah S. Torrie
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Dorothea Zander-Dinse
- Leishmaniasis Group, Bernhard Nocht Institute
for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg D-20359, Germany
| | - Michele Tinti
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Brand
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Laste Stojanovski
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Sujatha Manthri
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Irene Hallyburton
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Fabio Zuccotto
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Paul G. Wyatt
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Manu De Rycker
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - David Horn
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A. J. Ferguson
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Joachim Clos
- Leishmaniasis Group, Bernhard Nocht Institute
for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg D-20359, Germany
| | - Kevin D. Read
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Alan H. Fairlamb
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Ian H. Gilbert
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Wyllie
- The Wellcome Trust
Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
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12
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Hernandez HW, Soeung M, Zorn KM, Ashoura N, Mottin M, Andrade CH, Caffrey CR, de Siqueira-Neto JL, Ekins S. High Throughput and Computational Repurposing for Neglected Diseases. Pharm Res 2018; 36:27. [PMID: 30560386 PMCID: PMC6792295 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-018-2558-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) represent are a heterogeneous group of communicable diseases that are found within the poorest populations of the world. There are 23 NTDs that have been prioritized by the World Health Organization, which are endemic in 149 countries and affect more than 1.4 billion people, costing these developing economies billions of dollars annually. The NTDs result from four different causative pathogens: protozoa, bacteria, helminth and virus. The majority of the diseases lack effective treatments. Therefore, new therapeutics for NTDs are desperately needed. Methods We describe various high throughput screening and computational approaches that have been performed in recent years. We have collated the molecules identified in these studies and calculated molecular properties. Results Numerous global repurposing efforts have yielded some promising compounds for various neglected tropical diseases. These compounds when analyzed as one would expect appear drug-like. Several large datasets are also now in the public domain and this enables machine learning models to be constructed that then facilitate the discovery of new molecules for these pathogens. Conclusions In the space of a few years many groups have either performed experimental or computational repurposing high throughput screens against neglected diseases. These have identified compounds which in many cases are already approved drugs. Such approaches perhaps offer a more efficient way to develop treatments which are generally not a focus for global pharmaceutical companies because of the economics or the lack of a viable market. Other diseases could perhaps benefit from these repurposing approaches. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s11095-018-2558-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melinda Soeung
- MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Kimberley M Zorn
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27606, USA
| | | | - Melina Mottin
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Faculdade de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Goias - UFG, Goiânia, GO, 74605-170, Brazil
| | - Carolina Horta Andrade
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling and Drug Design Faculdade de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Goias - UFG, Goiânia, GO, 74605-170, Brazil
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, 92093, USA
| | - Jair Lage de Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, 92093, USA
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27606, USA.
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13
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New developments in probing and targeting protein acylation in malaria, leishmaniasis and African sleeping sickness. Parasitology 2017; 145:157-174. [PMID: 28270257 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182017000282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Infections by protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium falciparum or Leishmania donovani, have a significant health, social and economic impact and threaten billions of people living in tropical and sub-tropical regions of developing countries worldwide. The increasing range of parasite strains resistant to frontline therapeutics makes the identification of novel drug targets and the development of corresponding inhibitors vital. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are important modulators of biology and inhibition of protein lipidation has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for treatment of parasitic diseases. In this review we summarize the latest insights into protein lipidation in protozoan parasites. We discuss how recent chemical proteomic approaches have delivered the first global overviews of protein lipidation in these organisms, contributing to our understanding of the role of this PTM in critical metabolic and cellular functions. Additionally, we highlight the development of new small molecule inhibitors to target parasite acyl transferases.
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14
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Bolt HL, Eggimann GA, Denny PW, Cobb SL. Enlarging the chemical space of anti-leishmanials: a structure–activity relationship study of peptoids against Leishmania mexicana, a causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis. MEDCHEMCOMM 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6md00060f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Peptoids with promising activity against intracellularLeishmania mexicanaamastigotes have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. L. Bolt
- Department of Chemistry
- Biophysical Sciences Institute
- Durham University
- Durham
- UK
| | - G. A. Eggimann
- Department of Chemistry
- Biophysical Sciences Institute
- Durham University
- Durham
- UK
| | - Paul W. Denny
- Department of Chemistry
- Biophysical Sciences Institute
- Durham University
- Durham
- UK
| | - Steven L. Cobb
- Department of Chemistry
- Biophysical Sciences Institute
- Durham University
- Durham
- UK
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15
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Rackham MD, Yu Z, Brannigan JA, Heal WP, Paape D, Barker KV, Wilkinson AJ, Smith DF, Leatherbarrow RJ, Tate EW. Discovery of high affinity inhibitors of Leishmania donovani N-myristoyltransferase. MEDCHEMCOMM 2015; 6:1761-1766. [PMID: 26962429 PMCID: PMC4757855 DOI: 10.1039/c5md00241a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) is a potential drug target in Leishmania parasites. Scaffold-hopping from published inhibitors yielded the serendipitous discovery of a chemotype selective for Leishmania donovani NMT; development led to high affinity inhibitors with excellent ligand efficiency. The binding mode was characterised by crystallography and provides a structural rationale for selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Rackham
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
| | - Zhiyong Yu
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
| | - James A Brannigan
- Structural Biology Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , University of York , York , YO10 5DD , UK
| | - William P Heal
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
| | - Daniel Paape
- Department of Biology , University of York , York , YO10 5DD , UK
| | - K Victoria Barker
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
| | - Anthony J Wilkinson
- Structural Biology Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , University of York , York , YO10 5DD , UK
| | - Deborah F Smith
- Department of Biology , University of York , York , YO10 5DD , UK
| | - Robin J Leatherbarrow
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry , Imperial College London , South Kensington Campus , London , SW7 2AZ , UK . ; Tel: +44 (0) 2075 943752
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16
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de Mesquita Barbosa A, dos Santos Costa S, da Rocha JR, Montanari CA, Giorgio S. Evaluation of the leishmanicidal and cytotoxic effects of inhibitors for microorganism metabolic pathway enzymes. Biomed Pharmacother 2015; 74:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2015.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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17
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Wright MH, Paape D, Storck EM, Serwa RA, Smith DF, Tate EW. Global analysis of protein N-myristoylation and exploration of N-myristoyltransferase as a drug target in the neglected human pathogen Leishmania donovani. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:342-54. [PMID: 25728269 PMCID: PMC4372256 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) modulates protein function through the attachment of the lipid myristate to the N terminus of target proteins, and is a promising drug target in eukaryotic parasites such as Leishmania donovani. Only a small number of NMT substrates have been characterized in Leishmania, and a global picture of N-myristoylation is lacking. Here, we use metabolic tagging with an alkyne-functionalized myristic acid mimetic in live parasites followed by downstream click chemistry and analysis to identify lipidated proteins in both the promastigote (extracellular) and amastigote (intracellular) life stages. Quantitative chemical proteomics is used to profile target engagement by NMT inhibitors, and to define the complement of N-myristoylated proteins. Our results provide new insight into the multiple pathways modulated by NMT and the pleiotropic effects of NMT inhibition. This work constitutes the first global experimental analysis of protein lipidation in Leishmania, and reveals the extent of NMT-related biology yet to be explored for this neglected human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan H Wright
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Daniel Paape
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | | | - Remigiusz A Serwa
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Deborah F Smith
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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18
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Hutton JA, Goncalves V, Brannigan JA, Paape D, Wright MH, Waugh TM, Roberts SM, Bell AS, Wilkinson AJ, Smith DF, Leatherbarrow RJ, Tate EW. Structure-based design of potent and selective Leishmania N-myristoyltransferase inhibitors. J Med Chem 2014; 57:8664-70. [PMID: 25238611 PMCID: PMC4211304 DOI: 10.1021/jm5011397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Inhibitors
of LeishmaniaN-myristoyltransferase
(NMT), a potential target for the
treatment of leishmaniasis, obtained from a high-throughput screen,
were resynthesized to validate activity. Crystal structures bound
to Leishmania major NMT were obtained,
and the active diastereoisomer of one of the inhibitors was identified.
On the basis of structural insights, enzyme inhibition was increased
40-fold through hybridization of two distinct binding modes, resulting
in novel, highly potent Leishmania donovani NMT inhibitors with good selectivity over the human enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennie A Hutton
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, U.K
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