Do women's voices provide cues of the likelihood of ovulation? The importance of sampling regime

Effects of testosterone on speech production and perception: Linking hormone levels in males to vocal cues and female voice attractiveness ratings

This study sets out to investigate the potential effect of males' testosterone level on speech production and speech perception. Regarding speech production, we investigate intra- and inter-individual variation in mean fundamental frequency (fo) and formant frequencies and highlight the potential interacting effect of another hormone, i.e. cortisol. In addition, we investigate the influence of different speech materials on the relationship between testosterone and speech production. Regarding speech perception, we investigate the potential effect of individual differences in males' testosterone level on ratings of attractiveness of female voices. In the production study, data is gathered from 30 healthy adult males ranging from 19 to 27 years (mean age: 22.4, SD: 2.2) who recorded their voices and provided saliva samples at 9 am, 12 noon and 3 pm on a single day. Speech material consists of sustained vowels, counting, read speech and a free description of pictures. Biological measures comprise speakers' height, grip strength, and hormone levels (testosterone and cortisol). In the perception study, participants were asked to rate the attractiveness of female voice stimuli (sentence stimulus, same-speaker pairs) that were manipulated in three steps regarding mean fo and formant frequencies. Regarding speech production, our results show that testosterone affected mean fo (but not formants) both within and between speakers. This relationship was weakened in speakers with high cortisol levels and depended on the speech material. Regarding speech perception, we found female stimuli with higher mean fo and formants to be rated as sounding more attractive than stimuli with lower mean fo and formants. Moreover, listeners with low testosterone showed an increased sensitivity to vocal cues of female attractiveness. While our results of the production study support earlier findings of a relationship between testosterone and mean fo in males (which is mediated by cortisol), they also highlight the relevance of the speech material: The effect of testosterone was strongest in sustained vowels, potentially due to a strengthened effect of hormones on physiologically strongly influenced tasks such as sustained vowels in contrast to more free speech tasks such as a picture description. The perception study is the first to show an effect of males' testosterone level on female attractiveness ratings using voice stimuli.

Voice aspects in children with precocious puberty

PURPOSE

In this prospective study, we aimed to investigate the difference in voice acoustic parameters between girls with idiopathic central precocious puberty (ICPP) and those who developed normally during prepuberty.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our study recruited 54 girls diagnosed with ICPP and randomly sampled 51 healthy prepubertal girls as the control. Tanner stages, circulating hormone levels and bone ages of the girls with ICPP and the age and body mass index (BMI) of all participants were recorded. Acoustic analyses were performed using PRAAT computer-based voice analysis software and the mean pitch (F0), jitter, shimmer, noise-to harmonic-ratio (NHR) and harmonic-to-noise ratio (HNR) values were compared in the patient and control groups.

RESULTS

The two groups did not significantly differ in age or BMI. In the evaluation of the F0 and jitter values, we were found to be lower in the control group than in the patient group. However, we did not find a statistical significance. The mean shimmer values of the patient group were significantly higher than those of the control group. In addition, a statistically significant difference was noted for the mean HNR and NHR values (P < 0.001). A moderate negative correlation was found between shimmer and hormone levels in the patient group.

CONCLUSIONS

Voice acoustic parameters one of the defining features of girls with ICPP. Voice changes in acoustic parameters could reflect hormonal changes during puberty. Clinicians should suspect ICPP when there is a change in the voice.

Effects of Age-Dependent Hormonal Changes and Estrogen Supplementation on Voice in Girls with Anorexia Nervosa-Preliminary Report

INTRODUCTION

Human development includes lots of physical and emotional changes. The human voice depends on age. Voice production is a complex physiological and acoustic phenomenon that depends on many factors such as structure, hormone level, degree of fatigue or nutrition and hydration of the body, systemic diseases, and emotional state. All these factors can be present in anorexia nervosa (AN), such as excessive weight loss, generated hydro-electrolytic changes, nutritional deficiencies, hormonal disturbances in the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, and emotional distress. The prevalence of AN ranges between 0.3% and 3%, and it is the third most common chronic disease affecting adolescent girls. However, voice changes related to AN have not been fully investigated.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of AN on age-related changes in the voice of adolescent women-before and after puberty, particularly through acoustic analysis. An additional objective was to evaluate estrogen substitution in female patients with AN in order to investigate their effect on voice condition.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

126 girls diagnosed with AN (15.32 ± 2.12 years, range 12-19, BMI = 14.38 ± 1.67), were assessed for the condition of the voice such as perceptual voice evaluation on the GRBAS scale, maximal phonation time (MPT), laryngoscopy, with special attention to voice acoustic analysis-Multi-Dimensional Voice Program (MDVP). The control group (B) included 93 girls without eating disturbances (aged 12-19, mean age 15.52 ± 2.40, BMI = 21.50 ± 1.54). Perceptual voice assessment, aerodynamic test MPT, and acoustic parameters were analyzed in age groups (≤16 years and >16 years). The human vocal tract is sensitive to sex hormones, so the analysis was carried out in the group up to the age of 16 and above 16 to check possible effects.

RESULTS

GRBAS scale was higher in girls with AN compared to the control group for breathiness (B) (P = 0.0002) and asthenia (A) (P < 0.05). The median GRBAS scale for the older group of anorexic women was the highest (2.0). The mean MPT for group A was significantly lower (15.40 ± 3.51 seconds). Comparing age subgroups there was a prolongation of MPT in the healthy group (in groups ≤16 years and >16 years respectively 21.13 seconds versus 25.40 seconds) and a shortening in the anorectic group (≤16 years versus >16 years: 17.06 seconds versus 14.17 seconds). There was no difference between groups A and C up to 16 years of age, but above 16 years of age appeared (14.17 seconds versus 25.40 seconds). Acoustic analysis revealed lower F0 values in group A and C in older subgroups (215,85 Hz versus 236,01 Hz-statistically significant), as well as between subgroups both groups (A: 251,38 Hz versus 215,85 Hz; C: 248,20 Hz versus 236,01 Hz). A narrowing of the vocal range in girls over 16 years in group A was observed. There were no statistically significant differences in F0 between subgroups ≤16 years in groups A and C (251.38 Hz versus 248.20 Hz). The ENT study found that more than half of the girls (54.55%) over the age of 16 who took hormone supplementation manifested laryngeal structure that was normal for their age, there was no effect of hormone supplementation on any of the MDVP parameters between the drug-taking and non-drug-taking groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The acoustic results of the voice in MDVP measurements in adolescent women with AN are not within the normal range and do not mimic the normal developmental changes of the voice. The most important acoustic characteristics of the voice are changes in the fundamental frequency F0 and the range of the voice tended to be more severe in anorectic women >16 years of age and to increase with age, indicating a possible cumulative effect of malnutrition-related disorders as well as hormonal dysfunctions. MDVP can be considered a simple, non-invasive method of assessing the voice organ in AN. MPT differentiated the study groups well: statistically significant differences were noted both between the groups, as well as between age groups. There was no significant effect of oral hormone supplementation on any parameters of the voice. In conclusion, body mass and fat volume in AN may be related to voice production/physiology, affecting voice quality, voice acoustic parameters, voice aerodynamics, and phonatory range in an age-dependent manner. Future studies are needed to assess the long-term efficacy of estrogen treatment in AN.

The impact of tamoxifen treatment on voice parameters in premenopausal women with breast cancer

OBJECTIVE

The study aims to investigate the estrogen-agonistic effects of tamoxifen on voice parameters in premenopausal women diagnosed with breast cancer.

METHODS

A total of 108 premenopausal women were included, segmented into distinct treatment groups and a control group. Objective sound analysis was conducted using robust statistical methods, employing SPSS 25.0 for data analysis.

RESULTS

The study identified a statistically significant reduction in Jitter values across all treatment groups compared to the control group. No significant changes were observed in other voice quality parameters such as F0, Shimmer, NHR, and HNR.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that tamoxifen may have an estrogen-agonistic effect on voice quality, thereby potentially influencing future treatment protocols. This research fills a critical void in existing literature and sets the stage for more comprehensive studies that consider affects of hormonal therapies to voice.

Hearing, touching, and multisensory integration during mate choice

Mate choice is a potent generator of diversity and a fundamental pillar for sexual selection and evolution. Mate choice is a multistage affair, where complex sensory information and elaborate actions are used to identify, scrutinize, and evaluate potential mating partners. While widely accepted that communication during mate assessment relies on multimodal cues, most studies investigating the mechanisms controlling this fundamental behavior have restricted their focus to the dominant sensory modality used by the species under examination, such as vision in humans and smell in rodents. However, despite their undeniable importance for the initial recognition, attraction, and approach towards a potential mate, other modalities gain relevance as the interaction progresses, amongst which are touch and audition. In this review, we will: (1) focus on recent findings of how touch and audition can contribute to the evaluation and choice of mating partners, and (2) outline our current knowledge regarding the neuronal circuits processing touch and audition (amongst others) in the context of mate choice and ask (3) how these neural circuits are connected to areas that have been studied in the light of multisensory integration.

The Effects of Pitch Manipulation on Male Ratings of Female Speakers and Their Voices

Vocal and facial cues typically co-occur in natural settings, and multisensory processing of voice and face relies on their synchronous presentation. Psychological research has examined various facial and vocal cues to attractiveness as well as to judgements of sexual dimorphism, health, and age. However, few studies have investigated the interaction of vocal and facial cues in attractiveness judgments under naturalistic conditions using dynamic, ecologically valid stimuli. Here, we used short videos or audio tracks of females speaking full sentences and used a manipulation of voice pitch to investigate cross-modal interactions of voice pitch on facial attractiveness and related ratings. Male participants had to rate attractiveness, femininity, age, and health of synchronized audio-video recordings or voices only, with either original or modified voice pitch. We expected audio stimuli with increased voice pitch to be rated as more attractive, more feminine, healthier, and younger. If auditory judgements cross-modally influence judgements of facial attributes, we additionally expected the voice pitch manipulation to affect ratings of audiovisual stimulus material. We tested 106 male participants in a within-subject design in two sessions. Analyses revealed that voice recordings with increased voice pitch were perceived to be more feminine and younger, but not more attractive or healthier. When coupled with video recordings, increased pitch lowered perceived age of faces, but did not significantly influence perceived attractiveness, femininity, or health. Our results suggest that our manipulation of voice pitch has a measurable impact on judgements of femininity and age, but does not measurably influence vocal and facial attractiveness in naturalistic conditions.

Examining vocal attractiveness through articulatory working space

Robust gender differences exist in the acoustic correlates of clearly articulated speech, with females, on average, producing speech that is acoustically and phonetically more distinct than that of males. This study investigates the relationship between several acoustic correlates of clear speech and subjective ratings of vocal attractiveness. Talkers were recorded producing vowels in /bVd/ context and sentences containing the four corner vowels. Multiple measures of working vowel space were computed from continuously sampled formant trajectories and were combined with measures of speech timing known to co-vary with clear articulation. Partial least squares regression (PLS-R) modeling was used to predict ratings of vocal attractiveness for male and female talkers based on the acoustic measures. PLS components that loaded on size and shape measures of working vowel space-including the quadrilateral vowel space area, convex hull area, and bivariate spread of formants-along with measures of speech timing were highly successful at predicting attractiveness in female talkers producing /bVd/ words. These findings are consistent with a number of hypotheses regarding human attractiveness judgments, including the role of sexual dimorphism in mate selection, the significance of traits signalling underlying health, and perceptual fluency accounts of preferences.

High-Speed Characterization of Vocal Fold Vibrations in Normally Cycling and Postmenopausal Women: Randomized Double-Blind Analyses

Purpose The aim of this study was to examine the influence of menstrual cycle phases (follicular, ovulatory, luteal, and ischemic) and hormone levels (estradiol, testosterone, progesterone, and neuropeptide Y) on vocal fold vibrations in reproductive and postmenopausal women. Method Glottal area waveforms were extracted from high-speed videoendoscopy during sustained phonation, inhalation phonation, and voice onset/offset in the reproductive (n = 15) and postmenopausal (n = 13) groups. Linear mixed-model analysis was conducted to evaluate hormone levels and high-speed videoendoscopy outcome variables between the reproductive and postmenopausal groups. In the reproductive group, simple linear regression and multiple regression were conducted to determine the effects of hormones on the dependent variables. Results Group differences between reproductive and postmenopausal women were identified for stiffness index, oscillatory onset time, and oscillatory offset time. Neuropeptide Y hormone in the ischemic phase significantly predicted changes in the reproductive group for some dependent variables; however, the relationship varied for sustained phonation and inhalation phonation. Conclusion These findings provide preliminary evidence that vocal fold vibrations in the reproductive group are different predominantly in the ischemic phase due to neuropeptide Y changes.

Female Voice-Related Sexual Attractiveness to Males: Does it Vary With Different Degrees of Conception Likelihood?

Previous investigations have found that female voice-related attractiveness to males increases when both conception likelihood (CL) and voice fundamental frequency (f_o) are elevated. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a perceptual experiment where 78 heterosexual males rated sexual attractiveness of 9 female voice samples, recorded at menstrual, follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle under two double-blinded randomly allocated conditions: a natural menstrual cycle (placebo condition) and when using an oral contraceptive pill (OCP condition). The voice samples yielded a total of 54 stimuli that were visually sorted and rated using Visor software. Concentrations of estrogens, progesterone and testosterone were analyzed, and measurements of speaking fundamental frequency (sf_o) and its standard deviation (sf_oSD), f_o derivative (df_o) and f_o slope were made. A multilevel ordinal logistic regression model nested in listeners and in females, and adjusted by phase and condition, was carried out to assess the association between ratings and: (1) phases and conditions; (2) sex steroid hormonal concentrations; and (3) voice parameters. A high probability of obtaining high ratings of voice sexual attractiveness was found for: (1) menstrual phase of placebo use and follicular phase of OCP use; (2) for low estradiol to progesterone ratio and testosterone concentrations; and (3) for low df_o. The latter showed a moderate statistical association with ratings of high attractiveness, as compared with the small association found for the remaining variables. It seems that the voice is a weak cue for female CL. Female sexual attraction to males may be a consequence of what females do in order to regulate their extended sexuality across the menstrual cycle rather than of estrus cues, the use of paralinguistic speech patterns being an example.

Content matters: Cyclic effects on women's voices depend on social context

Women's voices reportedly sound more attractive during the fertile days compared to the non-fertile days of their menstrual cycle. Here we investigated whether the speech content modulates the cyclic changes in women's voices. We asked 72 men and women to rate how interested they were in getting to know the speaker based on her voice. Forty-two naturally cycling women were recorded once during the late follicular phase (high fertility) and once during the luteal phase (low fertility) while speaking sentences of neutral and social content. Listeners were more interested in getting to know the speakers when hearing sentences with social content. Furthermore, raters were more interested in getting to know the speakers when these were recorded in the late follicular than in the luteal phase, but only in sentences with social content. Notably, levels of reproductive hormones (EP ratio) across the cycle phases did not significantly predict the preference for late follicular voices, but echoing the perceptual ratings, there was a significant EP ratio x speech content interaction. Phonetic analyses of mean fundamental frequency (F0) revealed a main effect of menstrual cycle phase and speech content but no interaction. Employing an action-oriented task, the present study extends findings of cycle-dependent voice changes by emphasising that speech content critically modulates fertility effects.

Fundamental Frequency Variations Across the Menstrual Cycle and the Use of an Oral Contraceptive Pill

Purpose Concentrations of sex steroid hormones-estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone-have been associated with premenstrual and menstrual vocal symptoms. However, the extent to which these symptoms may be reflected on acoustical features of the voice is still debated. This study investigates variations in fundamental frequency (f _o) and related parameters in connected speech across phases of the menstrual cycle and during the use of a combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP). Method Electrolaryngographic recordings were made, and blood samples were collected at three different phases of the menstrual cycle-menstrual, follicular, and luteal-for placebo and OCP use. These two conditions were blindly and randomly allocated in the study. Speaking f _o (SFF), SFF standard deviation, SFF rate of change, SFF slope, maximum and minimum f _o, and f _o range were extracted for nine healthy females while reading a phrase from the Rainbow Passage. Concentrations of sex hormones were analyzed in serum. Nonparametric statistical tests were carried out to assess differences between phases and conditions. Results SFF, its standard deviation, and maximum f _o were significantly different between phases of the menstrual cycle for placebo use only. Menstrual phase showed the lowest values. Maximum and minimum f _o were significantly different between placebo and OCP use for menstrual and follicular phases, respectively. Conclusions Fluctuations in sex steroid hormones across the menstrual cycle alter f _o in speech more than a particular hormonal concentration. OCP use seems to have a stabilizing effect on the voice relative to f _o and related parameters in speech.

Loss of Estrogen Receptors is Associated with Increased Tumor Aggression in Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) responds to 17β-estradiol via estrogen-receptor (ER, transcribed from ESR1) dependent mechanisms, but is not recognized as a hormonally responsive cancer. 17β-estradiol production by LSCC cell lines UM-SCC-11A and UM-SCC-12 was examined. Wild type (WT) and ESR1-silenced LSCC cultures and xenografts were examined for 17β-estradiol responsiveness in vivo. 14 LSCC and surrounding epithelial samples at various pathological stages were obtained from patients; ERα and ERβ expression were verified using data from the total cancer genome atlas. UM-SCC-11A and UM-SCC-12 both produce 17β-estradiol, but only UM-SCC-12, not UM-SCC-11A, xenograft tumors grow larger in vivo in response to systemic 17β-estradiol treatments. ERα66 and ERα36 expression inversely correlated with clinical cancer stage and tumor burden. LSCC ERα66 expression was higher compared to surrounding epithelia in indolent samples but lower in aggressive LSCC. ERβ expression was highly variable. High ESR1 expression correlated with improved survival in LSCC. Loss of ERα66 expression inversely correlated with prognosis in LSCC. ERα66 may be a histopathological marker of aggression in LSCC.

Physiological and perceptual correlates of masculinity in children's voices

Low frequency components (i.e. a low pitch (F0) and low formant spacing (ΔF)) signal high salivary testosterone and height in adult male voices and are associated with high masculinity attributions by unfamiliar listeners (in both men and women). However, the relation between the physiological, acoustic and perceptual dimensions of speakers' masculinity prior to puberty remains unknown. In this study, 110 pre-pubertal children (58 girls), aged 3 to 10, were recorded as they described a cartoon picture. 315 adults (182 women) rated children's perceived masculinity from the voice only after listening to the speakers' audio recordings. On the basis of their voices alone, boys who had higher salivary testosterone levels were rated as more masculine and the relation between testosterone and perceived masculinity was partially mediated by F0. The voices of taller boys were also rated as more masculine, but the relation between height and perceived masculinity was not mediated by the considered acoustic parameters, indicating that acoustic cues other than F0 and ΔF may signal stature. Both boys and girls who had lower F0, were also rated as more masculine, while ΔF did not affect ratings. These findings highlight the interdependence of physiological, acoustic and perceptual dimensions, and suggest that inter-individual variation in male voices, particularly F0, may advertise hormonal masculinity from a very early age.

Estrogen signaling and estrogen receptors as prognostic indicators in laryngeal cancer

Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) has been shown to respond to 17β-estradiol. However, the presence and characterization of estrogen receptors (ER) and other sex hormone receptors in LSCC are still being determined. Sex hormone receptors and the way sex hormones impact LSCC tumors are important for understanding which patients would benefit from hormone therapies, such as anti-estrogen therapies. This information also has prognostic value, as there may be a correlation between ER profiles and LSCC aggression. Recent work by our team and others has shown that the canonical ER, estrogen receptor α (ERα), and its splice variant ERα36, are important modulators of estrogen signaling in LSCC. This review describes some common 17β-estradiol signaling pathways, and explains how these signaling pathways might control LSCC tumor growth. We also show that loss of ERα, but not ERα36, imbues LSCC with enhanced aggression, a pattern which has previously only been observed in breast cancer. We make a case for using ERα as a tumorigenic modulator and pathogenic marker in LSCC on par with the use of ERα as a prognostic marker in breast cancer.

Fertility-Dependent Acoustic Variation in Women's Voices Previously Shown to Affect Listener Physiology and Perception

Previous research demonstrates that listeners perceive women's voices as more attractive when recorded at high compared to low fertility phases of the menstrual cycle. This effect has been repeated with multiple voice recording samples, but one stimuli set has shown particularly robust replications. First collected by Pipitone and Gallup (2008), women were recorded counting from 1-10 on approximately the same day and time once a week for 4 weeks. Repeatedly, studies using these recordings have shown that naturally cycling women recorded at high fertility are rated as more attractive compared to voices of the same women at low fertility. Additionally, these stimuli have been shown to elicit autonomic nervous system arousal and precipitate a rise in testosterone levels among listeners. Although previous studies have examined the acoustic properties of voices across the menstrual cycle, they reach little consensus. The current study evaluates Pipitone and Gallup's voice stimuli from an acoustic perspective, analyzing specific vocal characteristics of both naturally cycling women and women taking hormonal contraceptives. Results show that among naturally cycling women, variation in vocal amplitude (shimmer) was significantly lower in high fertility recordings compared to the women's voices at low fertility. Harmonics-to-noise ratio and variation in voice pitch (jitter) also fluctuated systematically across voices sampled at different times during the menstrual cycle, though these effects were not statistically significant. It is possible that these acoustic changes could account for some of the replicated perceptual, hormonal, and physiological changes documented in prior literature using these voice stimuli.

Nonverbal Communication

The field of nonverbal communication (NVC) has a long history involving many cue modalities, including face, voice, body, touch, and interpersonal space; different levels of analysis, including normative, group, and individual differences; and many substantive themes that cross from psychology into other disciplines. In this review, we focus on NVC as it pertains to individuals and social interaction. We concentrate specifically on ( a) the meanings and correlates of cues that are enacted (sent) by encoders and ( b) the perception of nonverbal cues and the accuracy of such perception. Frameworks are presented for conceptualizing and understanding the process of sending and receiving nonverbal cues. Measurement issues are discussed, and theoretical issues and new developments are covered briefly. Although our review is primarily oriented within social and personality psychology, the interdisciplinary nature of NVC is evident in the growing body of research on NVC across many areas of scientific inquiry.

Do sexual calls in female black capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus) vary with fertility? An acoustic analysis

Females across a range of animal taxa produce vocalizations and signals uniquely associated with periods of mating. While such signals may ultimately function to increase female attractivity to males, conflicting findings challenge the extent to which these signals co-vary in accordance with the probability of conception. Female black capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus) display an elaborate repertoire of both vocal and visual components as part of their socio-sexual behavior, and previous analyses have shown that the rates of production of visual, but not vocal, components provide graded information on female ovulation. It remains possible, however, that the acoustic parameters of these sexual calls, rather than their rate of productions, co-vary with female fertility. To test this, we analyzed structural and temporal call parameters from estrous calls and post-copulatory calls recorded over five consecutive mating seasons in 12 sexually mature females at Iguazú National Park, Argentina. Calls given during the fertile phase of the female ovarian cycle were compared with those given during the non-fertile phase, as determined by profiles of female reproductive hormones. Similarly, within the fertile phase, we tested whether temporal or spectral acoustic parameters of calls gradually change with the approach of ovulation. We did not find any significant relationship between call parameters and the two measures of female fertility in either female estrous calls or post-copulatory calls. However, some differences between pre- and post-copulatory calls were apparent. Overall, our results indicate that sexual calls in black capuchin females do not provide precise information about the timing of ovulation, but may allow listeners to make probabilistic inferences about whether copulations have taken place. This, combined with previous findings, suggests that females in our study may use signals in different modalities to convey information about their fertility and sexual behavior with varying degrees of precision.

Judgements of a speaker's personality are correlated across differing content and stimulus type

It has previously been shown that first impressions of a speaker's personality, whether accurate or not, can be judged from short utterances of vowels and greetings, as well as from prolonged sentences and readings of complex paragraphs. From these studies, it is established that listeners' judgements are highly consistent with one another, suggesting that different people judge personality traits in a similar fashion, with three key personality traits being related to measures of valence (associated with trustworthiness), dominance, and attractiveness. Yet, particularly in voice perception, limited research has established the reliability of such personality judgements across stimulus types of varying lengths. Here we investigate whether first impressions of trustworthiness, dominance, and attractiveness of novel speakers are related when a judgement is made on hearing both one word and one sentence from the same speaker. Secondly, we test whether what is said, thus adjusting content, influences the stability of personality ratings. 60 Scottish voices (30 females) were recorded reading two texts: one of ambiguous content and one with socially-relevant content. One word (~500 ms) and one sentence (~3000 ms) were extracted from each recording for each speaker. 181 participants (138 females) rated either male or female voices across both content conditions (ambiguous, socially-relevant) and both stimulus types (word, sentence) for one of the three personality traits (trustworthiness, dominance, attractiveness). Pearson correlations showed personality ratings between words and sentences were strongly correlated, with no significant influence of content. In short, when establishing an impression of a novel speaker, judgments of three key personality traits are highly related whether you hear one word or one sentence, irrespective of what they are saying. This finding is consistent with initial personality judgments serving as elucidators of approach or avoidance behaviour, without modulation by time or content. All data and sounds are available on OSF (osf.io/s3cxy).

The Perception of Operational Sex Ratios by Voice

Adult sex ratios in a local environment are linked to a wide variety of reproductive behaviors in humans and other animals. When sex ratios are biased, the more numerous sex faces increased competition for mates and is more likely to yield to the sociosexual preferences of the less numerous sex. Despite widespread evidence of the relationship between sex ratios and behavior, we know little about whether or how sex ratios are encoded and perceived. In two experiments men and women showed perceived sex ratios that correlated with actual sex ratios after 1500 ms exposures to groups of simultaneous voices. However, men perceived more female voices than women did, and women perceived more male voices than men did. Women showed better accuracy than men, but only when sex ratios departed markedly from 50%. Increasing the number of simultaneous voices reduced accuracy, but only at extreme sex ratios. Talker age also significantly affected perceived sex ratios, suggesting that perceived operational sex ratios are adaptively linked to the reproductive viability of the local population. The results suggest that listeners automatically encode vocal sex ratio information and that perceived sex ratios are influenced by characteristics of the local population and characteristics of the listener.

Voice in different phases of menstrual cycle among naturally cycling women and users of hormonal contraceptives

Previous studies have shown changes in women's behavior and physical appearance between the non-fertile and fertile phases of the menstrual cycle. It is assumed that these changes are regulated by fluctuations in sex hormone levels across the cycle. Receptors for sex hormones have been found on the vocal folds, suggesting a link between hormone levels and vocal fold function, which might cause changes in voice production. However, attempts to identify changes in voice production across the menstrual cycle have produced mixed results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in sexually dimorphic vocal characteristics and quality of women's voices in different phases of the cycle and to compare these with users of monophasic hormonal contraception. Voice samples (vowel phonation) of 44 naturally cycling women were obtained in the menstrual, late follicular (confirmed by LH surge) and luteal phases, and in 20 hormonal contraceptive users across equivalent stages of the monthly cycle. Results showed that voices of naturally cycling women had higher minimum pitch in the late follicular phase compared with the other phases. In addition, voice intensity was at its lowest in the luteal phase. In contrast, there were no voice changes across the cycle in hormonal contraceptive users. Comparison between the two groups of women revealed that the naturally cycling group had higher minimum pitch in the fertile phase and higher harmonics to noise ratio in the menstrual phase. In general, present results support the assumption that sex hormones might have an effect on voice function. These results, coupled with mixed findings in previous studies, suggest that vocal changes in relation to hormonal fluctuation are subtle, at least during vowel production. Future studies should explore voice changes in a defined social context and with more free-flowing speech.

No compelling positive association between ovarian hormones and wearing red clothing when using multinomial analyses

Several studies report that wearing red clothing enhances women's attractiveness and signals sexual proceptivity to men. The associated hypothesis that women will choose to wear red clothing when fertility is highest, however, has received mixed support from empirical studies. One possible cause of these mixed findings may be methodological. The current study aimed to replicate recent findings suggesting a positive association between hormonal profiles associated with high fertility (high estradiol to progesterone ratios) and the likelihood of wearing red. We compared the effect of the estradiol to progesterone ratio on the probability of wearing: red versus non-red (binary logistic regression); red versus neutral, black, blue, green, orange, multi-color, and gray (multinomial logistic regression); and each of these same colors in separate binary models (e.g., green versus non-green). Red versus non-red analyses showed a positive trend between a high estradiol to progesterone ratio and wearing red, but the effect only arose for younger women and was not robust across samples. We found no compelling evidence for ovarian hormones increasing the probability of wearing red in the other analyses. However, we did find that the probability of wearing neutral was positively associated with the estradiol to progesterone ratio, though the effect did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance. Findings suggest that although ovarian hormones may affect younger women's preference for red clothing under some conditions, the effect is not robust when differentiating amongst other colors of clothing. In addition, the effect of ovarian hormones on clothing color preference may not be specific to the color red.

Can women detect cues to ovulation in other women's faces?

Recent research suggests that men find portraits of ovulatory women more attractive than photographs of the same women taken during the luteal phase. Only few studies have investigated whether the same is true for women. The ovulatory phase matters to men because women around ovulation are most likely to conceive, and might matter to women because fertile women might pose a reproductive threat. In an online study 160 women were shown face pairs, one of which was assimilated to the shape of a late follicular prototype and the other to a luteal prototype, and were asked to indicate which face they found more attractive. A further 60 women were tested in the laboratory using a similar procedure. In addition to choosing the more attractive face, these participants were asked which woman would be more likely to steal their own date. Because gonadal hormones influence competitive behaviour, we also examined whether oestradiol, testosterone and progesterone levels predict women's choices. The women found neither the late follicular nor the luteal version more attractive. However, naturally cycling women with higher oestradiol levels were more likely to choose the ovulatory woman as the one who would entice their date than women with lower oestradiol levels. These results imply a role of oestradiol when evaluating other women who are competing for reproduction.

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle on Singing Voice: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

Research has reported the difference in a woman's voice across the different stages of the menstrual cycle. A review of the studies in singers on the influence of menstruation on the singing voice will enable a better understanding of these changes.

METHODS/DESIGN

A systematic literature search was carried out on PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Cochrane, and regional electronic databases. The keywords "menstrual cycle," "voice change," and "singer" were used in different combinations. Only those articles that discussed the effect of menstrual cycle on the singing voice were included in the final review.

RESULTS

Six studies in the English language were identified and included in the review. Hormonal variations occur to a great extent during menstrual cycle, and these variations can influence the voice of singers. A great variability was found in the included studies. There are limited studies that have been carried out exploring the relationship between menstrual cycle and the singing voice.

CONCLUSION

Even though the studies included in the review point out toward the changes in the singing voice associated with menstrual cycle, there is a need for more studies to be carried out in diverse singing populations and in different outcome measures.

Determining menstrual phase in human biobehavioral research: A review with recommendations

Given the volume and importance of research focusing on menstrual phase, a review of the strategies being used to identify menstrual phase and recommendations that will promote methodological uniformity in the field is needed. We conducted a literature review via Ovid Medline and PsycINFO. Our goal was to review methods used to identify menstrual phase and subphases in biobehavioral research studies with women who had physiologically natural menstrual cycles. Therefore, we excluded articles that focused on any of the following: use of exogenous hormones, the postpartum period, menstrual-related problems (e.g., polycystic ovarian syndrome, endometriosis), and infertility/anovulation. We also excluded articles on either younger (<18 years old) or older (>45 years old) study samples. We initially identified a total of 1,809 articles. After our exclusionary criteria were applied, 146 articles remained, within which our review identified 6 different methods used to identify menstrual phase and subphases. The most common method used was self-report of onset of menses (145/146 articles) followed by urine luteinizing hormone testing (50/146 articles) and measurement of hormones (estradiol and/or progesterone) in blood samples (49/146 articles). Overall, we found a lack of consistency in the methodology used to determine menstrual phase and subphases. We provide several options to improve accuracy of phase identification, as well as to minimize costs and burden. Adoption of these recommendations will decrease misclassification within individual studies, facilitate cross-study comparisons, and enhance the reproducibility of results.

Speech Articulation of Low-Dose Oral Contraceptive Users

OBJECTIVES

In the female life cycle, hormonal fluctuations may result in impaired verbal efficiency and vocal worsening during the premenstrual phase. Oral contraceptives may interfere with vocal range. Voice, resonance, and articulation variations clarify speech content. To investigate the phonoarticulatory sounds produced by oral contraceptive users aged between 20 and 30 years.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Our study included four groups of women (n = 66): two groups used low-dose oral contraceptives and two groups did not use any oral contraceptives. Questionnaires and sound records were used. Acoustic analysis was performed using the Computerized Speech Laboratory program, Model 4341 (Kay Elemetrics Corp, Lincoln Park, New Jersey). The statistical analysis of the SPPS database, version 13.0, was performed by means of generalized estimating equation.

RESULTS

In the groups that did not use oral contraceptives, sustained vowel tones were more acute in the two phases and cycles of women older than 25 years (w/oOC1, 175 ± 74 to 190 ± 55 Hz; w/oOC2, 194 ± 56 to 210 ± 32 Hz). At the midfollicular phase (Fph) and midluteal phase (Lph) of the two cycles, the speed of the speech was slower in this group (w/oOC1: Fph, 5.3 ± 1.6/s and Lph, 5.4 ± 1.4/s; w/oOC2: Fph, 4.5 ± 1.7/s and Lph, 4.8 ± 1.1/s). In both groups that used oral contraceptives, there was a higher modulation frequency in the sentences when compared with nonusers (OC1, 33 ± 10 Hz; w/oOC1, 28 ± 10 Hz; OC2, 34 ± 10 Hz; w/oOC2, 27 ± 10 Hz). Vocal intensity was closer between the OC1 (62 ± 4 dB), w/oOC1 (61 ± 3 dB), and OC2 (63 ± 4 dB) groups when compared with the w/oOC2 (67 ± 6 dB) group.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated hormonal influences on speech articulation of contraceptive users and nonusers.

Differential responses to steroid hormones in fibroblasts from the vocal fold, trachea, and esophagus

There is accumulating evidence that fibroblasts are target cells for steroids such as sex hormones and corticoids. The characteristics of fibroblasts vary among tissues and organs. Our aim in this study is to examine differences in responses to steroid hormones among fibroblasts from different cervicothoracic regions. We compared the actions of steroid hormones on cultured fibroblasts from the vocal folds, which are considered to be the primary target of steroid hormones, and the trachea and esophagus in adult male rats. Expression of steroid hormone receptors (androgen receptor, estrogen receptor α, and glucocorticoid receptor) was identified by immunofluorescence histochemistry. Androgen receptor was much more frequently expressed in fibroblasts from the vocal fold than in those from the trachea and esophagus. Cell proliferation analysis showed that administration of testosterone, estradiol, or corticosterone suppressed growth of all 3 types of fibroblasts. However, mRNA expression for extracellular matrix-associated genes, including procollagen I and III and elastin, and hyaluronic acid synthase I was elevated only by addition of testosterone to fibroblasts from the vocal fold. These results indicate that each steroid hormone exerts region-specific effects on cervicothoracic fibroblasts with different properties through binding to specific receptors.

Is preference for ovulatory female's faces associated with men's testosterone levels?

Women's ovulation is perceivable with different senses. Already subtle face shape differences are enough to trigger men's preference for the ovulatory female. The aim of the present study is to investigate if men's testosterone level can be linked to their preference for the ovulatory female. Thirty-nine heterosexual participants were shown face pairs of which one of them was transformed to the shape of a prototype face of a woman in her luteal cycle phase and the other was transformed to the shape of a prototype face of an ovulatory woman. Participants were asked to choose the face which they perceived as being more attractive (attractiveness task), or the woman with whom they would have better chances to get a date (dating task). In both tasks, the ovulatory female was chosen more often. Testosterone was not predictive for the chosen face; regardless of testosterone level men preferred the ovulatory woman. However testosterone predicted how confident the men were with their choice. Men with lower testosterone levels were more confident with their choice than men with higher testosterone levels.

Facial, olfactory, and vocal cues to female reproductive value

Facial, olfactory, and vocal cues may advertise women's fertility. However, most of the evidence for this proposal has come from studies of changes in young adult women's attractiveness over the menstrual cycle. By contrast with this emphasis on changes in attractiveness over the menstrual cycle, possible changes in women's attractiveness over their lifespan have received little attention. The present study investigated men's ratings of young girls' (11-15 years old), adult women's (19-30 years old) and circum-menopausal women's (50-65 years old) facial, body odor, and vocal attractiveness and femininity. Faces and voices, but not body odors, of young girls and adult women were perceived to be significantly more attractive and feminine than those of circum-menopausal women. These data suggest that facial and vocal cues may be cues to women's reproductive value, but that body odor cues do not necessarily advertise this information.

Facial, Olfactory, and Vocal Cues to Female Reproductive Value

Facial, olfactory, and vocal cues may advertise women's fertility. However, most of the evidence for this proposal has come from studies of changes in young adult women's attractiveness over the menstrual cycle. By contrast with this emphasis on changes in attractiveness over the menstrual cycle, possible changes in women's attractiveness over their lifespan have received little attention. The present study investigated men's ratings of young girls' (11–15 years old), adult women's (19–30 years old) and circum-menopausal women's (50–65 years old) facial, body odor, and vocal attractiveness and femininity. Faces and voices, but not body odors, of young girls and adult women were perceived to be significantly more attractive and feminine than those of circum-menopausal women. These data suggest that facial and vocal cues may be cues to women's reproductive value, but that body odor cues do not necessarily advertise this information.

G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 expression in human vocal fold

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

Besides the classical sexual receptors, the expression of a recently clarified transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor (GPR30) has not been reported in the vocal fold so far. We aimed to study whether GPR30 is expressed in the human vocal fold.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental study using pathologic human vocal fold tissues.

METHODS

Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the GPR30 expression in a total of 83 vocal fold samples.

RESULTS

A total of 66% of the specimens tested were GPR30 mRNA positive, and 54% of the sections were revealed to be GPR30 immunostaining positive in the plasma membrane as well as the nucleus in the epithelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The GPR30 expression both in mRNA and protein level could be detected in the human vocal fold.

Consistency of Voice Frequency and Perturbation Measures in Children

Objective

Evaluate normal pediatric voice frequency and perturbation measures with Voice Evaluation Suite (VES) and Multi Dimensional Voice Program (MDVP), determine the consistency of these measures over time, and understand which measures might be most useful for evaluating children with voice disorders.

Study Design

Prospective, longitudinal study of normal voices of 50 children aged 4 to 17 years.

Setting

Pediatric otolaryngology clinic within tertiary hospital.

Subjects and Methods

Two tests of sustained utterances from each child were evaluated by 2 computerized voice analysis programs for frequency and perturbation. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to assess the reliability between the samples.

Results

Children (male/female, 1.08:1) with a mean age of 8.34 years were tested on an average of 54.2 minutes apart. Each test included 4 utterances; 1 was analyzed by MDVP, and 3 grouped utterances were averaged and evaluated by VES. Fundamental frequency had excellent reliability (ICC = 0.95) in both VES and MDVP. Jitter, shimmer, and noise to harmonic ratio were poorly reliable (ICC ≤0.4) in MDVP but had good to excellent reliability (ICC 0.66-0.8) in VES.

Conclusion

Single, sustained utterances in children provide consistent measures of frequency. Perturbation is not reliably measured by such testing, but averaging multiple samples yields improved consistency. Evaluating acoustic measure stability in spontaneous speech and in sustained utterances cued by a tuning frequency can provide further insight on pediatric voice consistency.

Women's attractiveness changes with estradiol and progesterone across the ovulatory cycle

In many species, females are more sexually attractive to males near ovulation. Some evidence suggests a similar pattern in humans, but methodological limitations prohibit firm conclusions at present, and information on physiological mechanisms underlying any such pattern is lacking. In 202 normally-cycling women, we explored whether women's attractiveness changed over the cycle as a function of two likely candidates for mediating these changes: estradiol and progesterone. We scheduled women to attend one session during the late follicular phase and another during the mid-luteal phase. At each session, facial photographs, voice recordings and saliva samples were collected. All photographs and voice recordings were subsequently rated by men for attractiveness and by women for flirtatiousness and attractiveness to men. Saliva samples were assayed for estradiol and progesterone. We found that progesterone and its interaction with estradiol negatively predicted vocal attractiveness and overall (facial plus vocal) attractiveness to men. Progesterone also negatively predicted women's facial attractiveness to men and female-rated facial attractiveness, facial flirtatiousness and vocal attractiveness, but not female-rated vocal flirtatiousness. These results strongly suggest a pattern of increased attractiveness during peak fertility in the menstrual cycle and implicate estradiol and progesterone in driving these changes.

Men's preference for the ovulating female is triggered by subtle face shape differences

Recent studies have revealed that there may be perceptible cues to ovulation in humans. This study aims at extending these findings by using female faces that were shape transformed towards a late follicular (fertile) and a luteal (non-fertile) prototype. Fertile prototypes were created by averaging 25 photographs taken of females during ovulation (as determined by ovulation tests); non-fertile prototypes were created by averaging 25 photographs of the same women during the luteal phase. Twenty different (new) female faces were then shape transformed towards the luteal prototype and towards the follicular prototype in 50% and 100% steps. The two 50% transforms and the two 100% transforms were paired, resulting in stimulus pairs of two different difficulties. Thirty-six male participants were asked to choose the more attractive (Task 1), the more caring (Task 2), and the more flirtatious face (Task 3). In a final task the participants were asked to choose the woman with which the participant would have better chances to get a date (Task 4). For all tasks we found a significant preference for the follicular face. In trials with a 100% transformation towards the shape of the prototype, the preference for the follicular stimulus was significantly stronger than in trials with a 50% transformation. We conclude that subtle shape differences in faces are sufficient to trigger men's preference for a woman in her fertile cycle phase.