1
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Hagiyama M, Yoneshige A, Wada A, Kimura R, Ito S, Inoue T, Takeuchi F, Ito A. Efficient intracellular drug delivery by co-administration of two antibodies against cell adhesion molecule 1. J Control Release 2024; 371:603-618. [PMID: 38782061 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Cell adhesion molecule 1 (CADM1), a single-pass transmembrane protein, is involved in oncogenesis. We previously demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of anti-CADM1 ectodomain monoclonal antibodies against mesothelioma; however, the underlying mechanism is unclear. In the present study, we explored the molecular behavior of anti-CADM1 antibodies in CADM1-expressing tumor cells. Sequencing analyses revealed that the anti-CADM1 chicken monoclonal antibodies 3E1 and 9D2 are IgY and IgM isotype antibodies, respectively. Co-administration of 3E1 and 9D2 altered the subcellular distribution of CADM1 from the detergent-soluble fraction to the detergent-resistant fraction in tumor cells. Using recombinant chicken-mouse chimeric antibodies that had been isotype-switched from IgG to IgM, we demonstrated that the combination of the variable region of 3E1 and the constant region of IgM was required for CADM1 relocation. Cytochemical studies showed that 3E1 colocalized with late endosomes/lysosomes after co-administration with 9D2, suggesting that the CADM1-antibody complex is internalized from the cell surface to intracellular compartments by lipid-raft mediated endocytosis. Finally, 3E1 was conjugated with the antimitotic agent monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE) via a cathepsin-cleavable linker. Co-administration of 3E1-monomethyl auristatin E and 9D2 suppressed the growth of multiple types of tumor cells, and this anti-tumor activity was confirmed in a syngeneic mouse model of melanoma. 3E1 and 9D2 are promising drug delivery vehicles for CADM1-expressing tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Hagiyama
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Azusa Yoneshige
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Akihiro Wada
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ryuichiro Kimura
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinji Ito
- Medical Research Support Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takao Inoue
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Fuka Takeuchi
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akihiko Ito
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan.
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2
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Rodríguez-Zhurbenko N, Hernández AM. The role of B-1 cells in cancer progression and anti-tumor immunity. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1363176. [PMID: 38629061 PMCID: PMC11019000 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1363176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, in addition to the well-established role of T cells in controlling or promoting tumor growth, a new wave of research has demonstrated the active involvement of B cells in tumor immunity. B-cell subsets with distinct phenotypes and functions play various roles in tumor progression. Plasma cells and activated B cells have been linked to improved clinical outcomes in several types of cancer, whereas regulatory B cells have been associated with disease progression. However, we are only beginning to understand the role of a particular innate subset of B cells, referred to as B-1 cells, in cancer. Here, we summarize the characteristics of B-1 cells and review their ability to infiltrate tumors. We also describe the potential mechanisms through which B-1 cells suppress anti-tumor immune responses and promote tumor progression. Additionally, we highlight recent studies on the protective anti-tumor function of B-1 cells in both mouse models and humans. Understanding the functions of B-1 cells in tumor immunity could pave the way for designing more effective cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nely Rodríguez-Zhurbenko
- Immunobiology Department, Immunology and Immunotherapy Division, Center of Molecular Immunology, Habana, Cuba
| | - Ana M. Hernández
- Applied Genetics Group, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Habana, Habana, Cuba
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3
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Amaresan R, Gopal U. Cell surface GRP78: a potential mechanism of therapeutic resistant tumors. Cancer Cell Int 2023; 23:100. [PMID: 37221596 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-023-02931-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
GRP78 is a protein that acts as a chaperone within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and has multiple functions. It is induced by stress and abets cells from survival. Despite, multiple Stress conditions like ER, chronic psychological and nutritional stress, hypoxia, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and drug resistance induce cell surface GRP78 (CS-GRP78) expression in cancer cells. Further, CS-GRP78 is associated with increased malignancy and resistance to anti-cancer therapies and is considered a high-value druggable target. Recent preclinical research suggests that targeting CS-GRP78 with anti-GRP78 monoclonal antibodies (Mab) in combination with other agents may be effective in reversing the failure of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or targeted therapies and increasing the efficacy of solid tumors treatment. This article will review recent evidence on the role of CS-GRP78 in developing resistance to anti-cancer treatments and the potential benefits of combining anti-GRP78 Mab with other cancer therapies for specific patient populations. Furthermore, our limited understanding of how CS-GRP78 regulated in human studies is a major drawback for designing effective CS-GRP78-targeted therapies. Hence, more research is still warranted to translate these potential therapies into clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajalakshmi Amaresan
- Department of Zoology, Auxilium College, Gandhi Nagar, Vellore, 632 006, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Udhayakumar Gopal
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA.
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4
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Bonsignore G, Martinotti S, Ranzato E. Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Cancer: Could Unfolded Protein Response Be a Druggable Target for Cancer Therapy? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021566. [PMID: 36675080 PMCID: PMC9865308 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Unfolded protein response (UPR) is an adaptive response which is used for re-establishing protein homeostasis, and it is triggered by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Specific ER proteins mediate UPR activation, after dissociation from chaperone Glucose-Regulated Protein 78 (GRP78). UPR can decrease ER stress, producing an ER adaptive response, block UPR if ER homeostasis is restored, or regulate apoptosis. Some tumour types are linked to ER protein folding machinery disturbance, highlighting how UPR plays a pivotal role in cancer cells to keep malignancy and drug resistance. In this review, we focus on some molecules that have been revealed to target ER stress demonstrating as UPR could be a new target in cancer treatment.
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5
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Watson J, Ferguson HR, Brady RM, Ferguson J, Fullwood P, Mo H, Bexley KH, Knight D, Howell G, Schwartz JM, Smith MP, Francavilla C. Spatially resolved phosphoproteomics reveals fibroblast growth factor receptor recycling-driven regulation of autophagy and survival. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6589. [PMID: 36329028 DOI: 10.1101/2021.01.17.427038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) endocytosis-dependent signalling drives cell proliferation and motility during development and adult homeostasis, but is dysregulated in diseases, including cancer. The recruitment of RTK signalling partners during endocytosis, specifically during recycling to the plasma membrane, is still unknown. Focusing on Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 2b (FGFR2b) recycling, we reveal FGFR signalling partners proximal to recycling endosomes by developing a Spatially Resolved Phosphoproteomics (SRP) approach based on APEX2-driven biotinylation followed by phosphorylated peptides enrichment. Combining this with traditional phosphoproteomics, bioinformatics, and targeted assays, we uncover that FGFR2b stimulated by its recycling ligand FGF10 activates mTOR-dependent signalling and ULK1 at the recycling endosomes, leading to autophagy suppression and cell survival. This adds to the growing importance of RTK recycling in orchestrating cell fate and suggests a therapeutically targetable vulnerability in ligand-responsive cancer cells. Integrating SRP with other systems biology approaches provides a powerful tool to spatially resolve cellular signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Watson
- Division of Evolution, Infection and Genomics, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Harriet R Ferguson
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Rosie M Brady
- Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, Manchester, M20 4GJ, UK
| | - Jennifer Ferguson
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul Fullwood
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Hanyi Mo
- Division of Evolution, Infection and Genomics, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Katherine H Bexley
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - David Knight
- Bio-MS Core Research Facility, FBMH, The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Gareth Howell
- Flow Cytometry Core Research Facility, FBMH, The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Jean-Marc Schwartz
- Division of Evolution, Infection and Genomics, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK
| | - Michael P Smith
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK.
| | - Chiara Francavilla
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Function, School of Biological Science, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health (FBMH), The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK.
- Manchester Breast Centre, Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, M139PT, Manchester, UK.
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6
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Sadeghi N, Tavalaee M, Shahverdi A, Sengupta P, Leisegang K, Saleh R, Agarwal A, Nasr-Esfahani MH. Vulnerability of The Male Reproductive System to SARS-CoV-2 Invasion: Potential Role for The Endoplasmic Reticulum Chaperone Grp78/HSPA5/BiP. CELL JOURNAL 2022; 24:427-433. [PMID: 36093801 PMCID: PMC9468718 DOI: 10.22074/cellj.2022.8312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) may adversely affect male reproductive tissues and male<br />fertility. This concern is elicited by the higher susceptibility and mortality rate of men to the SARS-CoV-2 mediated coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), compared to the women. SARS-CoV-2 enters host cells after binding to a functional receptor named angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) and then replicates in the host cells and gets released into the plasma. SARS-CoVs use the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as a site for viral protein synthesis and processing, as well as glucose-regulated protein 78 (Grp78) is a key ER chaperone involved in protein folding by preventing newly synthesized proteins from aggregation.<br />Therefore, we analyzed Grp78 expression in various human organs, particularly male reproductive organs, using Broad<br />Institute Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE), the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), and Human Protein Atlas online<br />datasets. Grp78 is expressed in male reproductive tissues such as the testis, epididymis, prostate, and seminal vesicle. It can facilitate the coronavirus entry into the male reproductive tract, providing an opportunity for its replication. This link between the SARS-CoV-2 and the Grp78 protein could become a therapeutic target to mitigate its harmful effects on male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niloofar Sadeghi
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan,
Iran,Department of Biochemistry and Functional Genomics, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Marziyeh Tavalaee
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan,
Iran
| | - Abdolhossein Shahverdi
- Department of Embryology, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Reproductive Biomedicine, ACECR,
Tehran, Iran
| | - Pallav Sengupta
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Bioscience and Nursing, MAHSA University, Bandar Saujana Putra, Malaysia
| | - Kristian Leisegang
- School of Natural Medicine, Faculty of Community and Health Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ramadan Saleh
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Andrology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt,Ajyal IVF Center, Ajyal Hospital, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Ashok Agarwal
- American Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA,P.O.Box: 8165131378Department of Animal BiotechnologyReproductive Biomedicine Research CenterRoyan Institute for BiotechnologyACECRIsfahanIran
Emails:,
| | - Mohammad Hossein Nasr-Esfahani
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan,
Iran,P.O.Box: 8165131378Department of Animal BiotechnologyReproductive Biomedicine Research CenterRoyan Institute for BiotechnologyACECRIsfahanIran
Emails:,
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7
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Ferguson ID, Patiño-Escobar B, Tuomivaara ST, Lin YHT, Nix MA, Leung KK, Kasap C, Ramos E, Nieves Vasquez W, Talbot A, Hale M, Naik A, Kishishita A, Choudhry P, Lopez-Girona A, Miao W, Wong SW, Wolf JL, Martin TG, Shah N, Vandenberg S, Prakash S, Besse L, Driessen C, Posey AD, Mullins RD, Eyquem J, Wells JA, Wiita AP. The surfaceome of multiple myeloma cells suggests potential immunotherapeutic strategies and protein markers of drug resistance. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4121. [PMID: 35840578 PMCID: PMC9287322 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31810-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The myeloma surface proteome (surfaceome) determines tumor interaction with the microenvironment and serves as an emerging arena for therapeutic development. Here, we use glycoprotein capture proteomics to define the myeloma surfaceome at baseline, in drug resistance, and in response to acute drug treatment. We provide a scoring system for surface antigens and identify CCR10 as a promising target in this disease expressed widely on malignant plasma cells. We engineer proof-of-principle chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells targeting CCR10 using its natural ligand CCL27. In myeloma models we identify proteins that could serve as markers of resistance to bortezomib and lenalidomide, including CD53, CD10, EVI2B, and CD33. We find that acute lenalidomide treatment increases activity of MUC1-targeting CAR-T cells through antigen upregulation. Finally, we develop a miniaturized surface proteomic protocol for profiling primary plasma cell samples with low inputs. These approaches and datasets may contribute to the biological, therapeutic, and diagnostic understanding of myeloma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian D Ferguson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Cancer Biology Program, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Sami T Tuomivaara
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Yu-Hsiu T Lin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matthew A Nix
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kevin K Leung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Corynn Kasap
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Emilio Ramos
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Wilson Nieves Vasquez
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Alexis Talbot
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- INSERM U976, Institut de Recherche Saint Louis, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Martina Hale
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Akul Naik
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Audrey Kishishita
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Program in Chemistry and Chemical Biology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Priya Choudhry
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Weili Miao
- Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sandy W Wong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Wolf
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Thomas G Martin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nina Shah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Scott Vandenberg
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sonam Prakash
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lenka Besse
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Driessen
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Avery D Posey
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - R Dyche Mullins
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Justin Eyquem
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Gladstone Institute for Genomic Immunology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - James A Wells
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Arun P Wiita
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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8
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Chen J, Lynn EG, Yousof TR, Sharma H, MacDonald ME, Byun JH, Shayegan B, Austin RC. Scratching the Surface—An Overview of the Roles of Cell Surface GRP78 in Cancer. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10051098. [PMID: 35625836 PMCID: PMC9138746 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10051098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) is considered an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident molecular chaperone that plays a crucial role in protein folding homeostasis by regulating the unfolded protein response (UPR) and inducing numerous proapoptotic and autophagic pathways within the eukaryotic cell. However, in cancer cells, GRP78 has also been shown to migrate from the ER lumen to the cell surface, playing a role in several cellular pathways that promote tumor growth and cancer cell progression. There is another insidious consequence elicited by cell surface GRP78 (csGRP78) on cancer cells: the accumulation of csGRP78 represents a novel neoantigen leading to the production of anti-GRP78 autoantibodies that can bind csGRP78 and further amplify these cellular pathways to enhance cell growth and mitigate apoptotic cell death. This review examines the current body of literature that delineates the mechanisms by which ER-resident GRP78 localizes to the cell surface and its consequences, as well as potential therapeutics that target csGRP78 and block its interaction with anti-GRP78 autoantibodies, thereby inhibiting further amplification of cancer cell progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Chen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Edward G. Lynn
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Tamana R. Yousof
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Hitesh Sharma
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Melissa E. MacDonald
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Jae Hyun Byun
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
| | - Bobby Shayegan
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, The Research Institute of St. Joe′s Hamilton, McMaster University, ON L8N 4A6, Canada;
| | - Richard C. Austin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, St. Joseph′s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada; (J.C.); (E.G.L.); (T.R.Y.); (H.S.); (M.E.M.); (J.H.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-905-522-1155 (ext. 35175)
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9
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Shan S, Niu J, Yin R, Shi J, Zhang L, Wu C, Li H, Li Z. Peroxidase from foxtail millet bran exerts anti-colorectal cancer activity via targeting cell-surface GRP78 to inactivate STAT3 pathway. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:1254-1270. [PMID: 35530132 PMCID: PMC9069399 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular targeted therapy has become an emerging promising strategy in cancer treatment, and screening the agents targeting at cancer cell specific targets is very desirable for cancer treatment. Our previous study firstly found that a secretory peroxidase of class III derived from foxtail millet bran (FMBP) exhibited excellent targeting anti-colorectal cancer (CRC) activity in vivo and in vitro, whereas its underlying target remains unclear. The highlight of present study focuses on the finding that cell surface glucose-regulated protein 78 (csGRP78) abnormally located on CRC is positively correlated with the anti-CRC effects of FMBP, indicating it serves as a potential target of FMBP against CRC. Further, we demonstrated that the combination of FMBP with the nucleotide binding domain (NBD) of csGRP78 interfered with the downstream activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in CRC cells, thus promoting the intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell grown inhibition. These phenomena were further confirmed in nude mice tumor model. Collectively, our study highlights csGRP78 acts as an underlying target of FMBP against CRC, uncovering the clinical potential of FMBP as a targeted agent for CRC in the future.
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Key Words
- CAC, colitis-associated carcinogenesis
- CDKs, cyclin-dependent kinases
- CETSA, cellular thermal shift assay
- CRC, colorectal cancer
- Co-IP, co-immunoprecipitation
- Colorectal cancer
- DCFH-DA, dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration
- FMBP
- FMBP, peroxidase derived from foxtail millet bran
- Foxtail millet bran
- GRP78, glucose-regulated protein 78
- H&E, hematoxylin & eosin
- ISM, isthmin
- MPs, membrane proteins
- NBD, the nucleotide binding domain of csGRP78
- PD-1, programmed death-1
- ROS
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SBD, substrate-binding domain of csGRP78
- SPF, specific pathogen free
- STAT3
- STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3
- TRAIL, tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
- csGRP78
- csGRP78, cell surface glucose-regulated protein 78
- rGRP78, recombinant GRP78
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10
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Hernandez I, Cohen M. Linking cell-surface GRP78 to cancer: From basic research to clinical value of GRP78 antibodies. Cancer Lett 2022; 524:1-14. [PMID: 34637844 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Glucose-related protein 78 (GRP78) is a chaperone protein localized primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen, where it helps in proper protein folding by targeting misfolded proteins and facilitating protein assembly. In stressed cells, GRP78 is translocated to the cell surface (csGRP78) where it binds to various ligands and triggers different intracellular pathways. Thus, csGRP78 expression is associated with cancer, involved in the maintenance and progression of the disease. Extracellular exposition of csGRP78 leads to the production of autoantibodies as observed in patients with prostate or ovarian cancer, in which the ability to target csGRP78 affects the tumor development. Present on the surface of cancer cells and not normal cells in vivo, csGRP78 represents an interesting target for therapeutic antibody strategies. Here we give an overview of the csGRP78 function in the cell and its role in oncogenesis, thereby providing insight into the clinical value of GRP78 monoclonal antibodies for cancer prognosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Hernandez
- Department of Pediatrics, Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Translational Research Centre in Oncohaematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marie Cohen
- Department of Pediatrics, Gynecology and Obstetrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Translational Research Centre in Oncohaematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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11
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Albakova Z, Mangasarova Y. The HSP Immune Network in Cancer. Front Immunol 2021; 12:796493. [PMID: 34917098 PMCID: PMC8669653 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.796493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins are molecular chaperones which support tumor development by regulating various cellular processes including unfolded protein response, mitochondrial bioenergetics, apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, lipid metabolism, angiogenesis, cancer cell stemness, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and tumor immunity. Apart from their intracellular activities, HSPs have also distinct extracellular functions. However, the role that HSP chaperones play in the regulation of immune responses inside and outside the cell is not yet clear. Herein, we explore the intracellular and extracellular immunologic functions of HSPs in cancer. A broader understanding of how HSPs modulate immune responses may provide critical insights for the development of effective immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zarema Albakova
- Department of Immunology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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12
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Moscvin M, Ho M, Bianchi G. Overcoming drug resistance by targeting protein homeostasis in multiple myeloma. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2021; 4:1028-1046. [PMID: 35265794 PMCID: PMC8903187 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2021.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell disorder typically characterized by abundant synthesis of clonal immunoglobulin or free light chains. Although incurable, a deeper understanding of MM pathobiology has fueled major therapeutical advances over the past two decades, significantly improving patient outcomes. Proteasome inhibitors, immunomodulatory drugs, and monoclonal antibodies are among the most effective anti-MM drugs, targeting not only the cancerous cells, but also the bone marrow microenvironment. However, de novo resistance has been reported, and acquired resistance is inevitable for most patients over time, leading to relapsed/refractory disease and poor outcomes. Sustained protein synthesis coupled with impaired/insufficient proteolytic mechanisms makes MM cells exquisitely sensitive to perturbations in protein homeostasis, offering us the opportunity to target this intrinsic vulnerability for therapeutic purposes. This review highlights the scientific rationale for the clinical use of FDA-approved and investigational agents targeting protein homeostasis in MM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Moscvin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Matthew Ho
- Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 240010, USA
| | - Giada Bianchi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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13
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Vukovic N, van Elsas A, Verbeek JS, Zaiss DMW. Isotype selection for antibody-based cancer therapy. Clin Exp Immunol 2021; 203:351-365. [PMID: 33155272 PMCID: PMC7874837 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical application of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has revolutionized the field of cancer therapy, as it has enabled the successful treatment of previously untreatable types of cancer. Different mechanisms play a role in the anti-tumour effect of mAbs. These include blocking of tumour-specific growth factor receptors or of immune modulatory molecules as well as complement and cell-mediated tumour cell lysis. Thus, for many mAbs, Fc-mediated effector functions critically contribute to the efficacy of treatment. As immunoglobulin (Ig) isotypes differ in their ability to bind to Fc receptors on immune cells as well as in their ability to activate complement, they differ in the immune responses they activate. Therefore, the choice of antibody isotype for therapeutic mAbs is dictated by its intended mechanism of action. Considering that clinical efficacy of many mAbs is currently achieved only in subsets of patients, optimal isotype selection and Fc optimization during antibody development may represent an important step towards improved patient outcome. Here, we discuss the current knowledge of the therapeutic effector functions of different isotypes and Fc-engineering strategies to improve mAbs application.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Vukovic
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghAshworth LaboratoriesEdinburghUK
| | | | - J. S. Verbeek
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringToin University of YokohamaYokohamaJapan
| | - D. M. W. Zaiss
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghAshworth LaboratoriesEdinburghUK
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14
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Liu Y, Tan Z, Yang Y. Negative feedback and modern anti-cancer strategies targeting the ER stress response. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:4247-4265. [PMID: 33206409 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a cell state in which misfolded or unfolded proteins are aberrantly accumulated in the ER. ER stress induces an evolutionarily conserved adaptive response, named the ER stress response, that deploys a self-regulated machinery to maintain cellular proteostasis. However, compared to its well-established canonical activation mechanism, the negative feedback mechanisms regulating the ER stress response remain unclear and no accepted methods or markers have been established. Several studies have documented that both endogenous and exogenous insults can induce ER stress in cancer. Based on this evidence, small molecule inhibitors targeting ER stress response have been designed to kill cancer cells, with some of them showing excellent curative effects. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of negative feedback of the ER stress response and compare the markers used to date. We also summarize therapeutic inhibitors targeting ER stress response and highlight the promises and challenges ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaofu Liu
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhenzhi Tan
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
| | - Yili Yang
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou, China
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15
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Farshbaf M, Khosroushahi AY, Mojarad-Jabali S, Zarebkohan A, Valizadeh H, Walker PR. Cell surface GRP78: An emerging imaging marker and therapeutic target for cancer. J Control Release 2020; 328:932-941. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.10.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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16
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Ninkovic S, Harrison SJ, Quach H. Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) as a potential novel biomarker and therapeutic target in multiple myeloma. Expert Rev Hematol 2020; 13:1201-1210. [PMID: 32990063 DOI: 10.1080/17474086.2020.1830372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is a stress-inducible molecular chaperone expressed within the endoplasmic reticulum where it acts as a master regulator of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway. At times of ER stress, activation of the UPR, a multimolecular pathway, limits proteotoxicity induced by misfolded proteins. In malignancies, including multiple myeloma which is characterized by an accumulation of misfolded immunoglobulins, GRP78 expression is increased, with notable translocation of GRP78 to the cell surface. Studies suggest cell-surface GRP78 (csGRP78) to be of prognostic significance with emerging evidence that it interacts with a myriad of co-ligands to activate signaling pathways promoting cell proliferation and survival or apoptosis. AREAS COVERED This review focuses on the role of ER and csGRP78 in physiology and oncogenesis in multiple myeloma, addressing factors that shift the balance in GRP78 signaling from survival to apoptosis. The role of GRP78 as a potential prognostic biomarker is explored and current therapeutics in development aimed at targeting csGRP78 are addressed. We conducted a PubMed literature search using the keywords 'GRP78,' 'multiple myeloma' reviewing studies prior to 2020. EXPERT OPINION Cell-surface GRP78 expression is a potential novel prognostic biomarker in myeloma and targeting of csGRP78 is promising and requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slavisa Ninkovic
- Department of Haematology, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne , Fitzroy, Australia.,Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne , Fitzroy, Australia
| | - Simon J Harrison
- Clinical Haematology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre and Royal Melbourne Hospital , Melbourne, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Dept of Oncology, University of Melbourne , Parkville, Australia
| | - Hang Quach
- Department of Haematology, St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne , Fitzroy, Australia.,Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne , Fitzroy, Australia
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17
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Reyneveld GIJ, Savelkoul HFJ, Parmentier HK. Current Understanding of Natural Antibodies and Exploring the Possibilities of Modulation Using Veterinary Models. A Review. Front Immunol 2020; 11:2139. [PMID: 33013904 PMCID: PMC7511776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.02139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural antibodies (NAb) are defined as germline encoded immunoglobulins found in individuals without (known) prior antigenic experience. NAb bind exogenous (e.g., bacterial) and self-components and have been found in every vertebrate species tested. NAb likely act as a first-line immune defense against infections. A large part of NAb, so called natural autoantibodies (NAAb) bind to and clear (self) neo-epitopes, apoptotic, and necrotic cells. Such self-binding antibodies cannot, however, be considered as pathogenic autoantibodies in the classical sense. IgM and IgG NAb and NAAb and their implications in health and disease are relatively well-described in humans and mice. NAb are present in veterinary (and wildlife) species, but their relation with diseases and disorders in veterinary species are much less known. Also, there is little known of IgA NAb. IgA is the most abundant immunoglobulin with essential pro-inflammatory and homeostatic properties urging for more research on the importance of IgA NAb. Since NAb in humans were indicated to fulfill important functions in health and disease, their role in health of veterinary species should be investigated more often. Furthermore, it is unknown whether levels of NAb-isotypes and/or idiotypes can and should be modulated. Veterinary species as models of choice fill in a niche between mice and (non-human) primates, and the study of NAb in veterinary species may provide valuable new insights that will likely improve health management. Below, examples of the involvement of NAb in several diseases in mostly humans are shown. Possibilities of intravenous immunoglobulin administration, targeted immunotherapy, immunization, diet, and genetic modulation are discussed, all of which could be well-studied using animal models. Arguments are given why veterinary immunology should obtain inspiration from human studies and why human immunology would benefit from veterinary models. Within the One Health concept, findings from veterinary (and wildlife) studies can be related to human studies and vice versa so that both fields will mutually benefit. This will lead to a better understanding of NAb: their origin, activation mechanisms, and their implications in health and disease, and will lead to novel health management strategies for both human and veterinary species.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. IJsbrand Reyneveld
- Faculty of Science, VU University, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Huub F. J. Savelkoul
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Henk K. Parmentier
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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18
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Aghamollaei H, Ghanei M, Rasaee MJ, Latifi AM, Bakherad H, Fasihi-Ramandi M, Taheri RA, Gargari SLM. Isolation and characterization of a novel nanobody for detection of GRP78 expressing cancer cells. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2020; 68:239-246. [PMID: 32270531 DOI: 10.1002/bab.1916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone that has been shown that is overexpressed in cancer cells. Overexpression of GRP78 on cancer cells makes this molecule a suitable candidate for cancer detection and targeted therapy. VHH is the binding fragment of camelid heavy-chain antibodies also known as "nanobody." The aim of this study is to isolate and produce a new recombinant nanobody using phage display technique to detect cancer cells. Using the c-terminal domain of GRP78 (CGRP) as an antigen, four rounds of biopanning were performed, and high-affinity binders were selected by ELISA. Their affinity and functionality were characterized by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) cell ELISA and immunocytochemistry. A unique nanobody named V80 was purified. ELISA and SPR showed that this antibody had high specificity and affinity to the GRP78. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that V80 could specifically bind to the HepG2 and A549 cancer cell lines. This novel recombinant nanobody could bind to the cell surface of different cancer cells. After further evaluation, this nanobody can be used as a new tool for cancer detection and tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Aghamollaei
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Ghanei
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javad Rasaee
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mohammad Latifi
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamid Bakherad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Isfahan Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Mahdi Fasihi-Ramandi
- Molecular Biology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramezan Ali Taheri
- Nanobiotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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19
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Samsudin F, Yeo JY, Gan SKE, Bond PJ. Not all therapeutic antibody isotypes are equal: the case of IgM versus IgG in Pertuzumab and Trastuzumab. Chem Sci 2020; 11:2843-2854. [PMID: 32206268 PMCID: PMC7069520 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc04722k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic potential of immunoglobulin M (IgM) is of considerable interest in immunotherapy due to its complement-activating and cell-agglutinating abilities. Pertuzumab and Trastuzumab are monoclonal antibodies used to treat human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer but exhibit significantly different binding affinities as IgM when compared to its IgG isotype. Using integrative multiscale modelling and simulations of complete antibody assemblies, we show that Pertuzumab IgM is able to utilize all of its V-regions to bind multiple HER2 receptors simultaneously, while similar binding in Trastuzumab IgM is prohibited by steric clashes caused by the large globular domain of HER2. This is subsequently validated by confirming that Pertuzumab IgM inhibits proliferation in HER2 over-expressing live cells more effectively than its IgG counterpart and Trastuzumab IgM. Our study highlights the importance of understanding the molecular details of antibody-antigen interactions for the design and isotype selection of therapeutic antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firdaus Samsudin
- Bioinformatics Institute (ASTAR) , 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix , Singapore 138671 , Singapore . ;
| | - Joshua Yi Yeo
- Bioinformatics Institute (ASTAR) , 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix , Singapore 138671 , Singapore . ;
| | - Samuel Ken-En Gan
- Bioinformatics Institute (ASTAR) , 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix , Singapore 138671 , Singapore . ;
- p53 Laboratory (ASTAR) , 8A Biomedical Grove, #06-04/05 Neuros/Immunos , Singapore 138648
- Experimental Drug Development Center (ASTAR) , 10 Biopolis Road Chromos #05-01 , Singapore 138670
| | - Peter J Bond
- Bioinformatics Institute (ASTAR) , 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix , Singapore 138671 , Singapore . ;
- Department of Biological Sciences , National University of Singapore , 14 Science Drive 4 , Singapore 117543 , Singapore
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20
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Cell Surface GRP78 as a Death Receptor and an Anticancer Drug Target. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11111787. [PMID: 31766302 PMCID: PMC6896222 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11111787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell surface GRP78 (csGRP78, glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa) is preferentially overexpressed in aggressive, metastatic, and chemo-resistant cancers. GRP78 is best studied as a chaperone protein in the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), facilitating folding and secretion of the newly synthesized proteins and regulating protein degradation as an ER stress sensor in the unfolded protein pathway. As a cell surface signal receptor, multiple csGRP78 ligands have been discovered to date, and they trigger various downstream cell signaling pathways including pro-proliferative, pro-survival, and pro-apoptotic pathways. In this perspective, we evaluate csGRP78 as a cell surface death receptor and its prospect as an anticancer drug target. The pro-apoptotic ligands of csGRP78 discovered so far include natural proteins, monoclonal antibodies, and synthetic peptides. Even the secreted GRP78 itself was recently found to function as a pro-apoptotic ligand for csGRP78, mediating pancreatic β-cell death. As csGRP78 is found to mainly configur as an external peripheral protein on cancer cell surface, how it can transmit death signals to the cytoplasmic environment remains enigmatic. With the recent encouraging results from the natural csGRP78 targeting pro-apoptotic monoclonal antibody PAT-SM6 in early-stage cancer clinical trials, the potential to develop a novel class of anticancer therapeutics targeting csGRP78 is becoming more compelling.
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21
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Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) in Survival, Dormancy, Immunosuppression, Metastasis, and Treatments of Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20102518. [PMID: 31121863 PMCID: PMC6566956 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has diverse functions, and especially misfolded protein modification is in the focus of this review paper. With a highly regulatory mechanism, called unfolded protein response (UPR), it protects cells from the accumulation of misfolded proteins. Nevertheless, not only does UPR modify improper proteins, but it also degrades proteins that are unable to recover. Three pathways of UPR, namely PERK, IRE-1, and ATF6, have a significant role in regulating stress-induced physiological responses in cells. The dysregulated UPR may be involved in diseases, such as atherosclerosis, heart diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and cancer. Here, we discuss the relation between UPR and cancer, considering several aspects including survival, dormancy, immunosuppression, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells. Although several moderate adversities can subject cancer cells to a hostile environment, UPR can ensure their survival. Excessive unfavorable conditions, such as overloading with misfolded proteins and nutrient deprivation, tend to trigger cancer cell death signaling. Regarding dormancy and immunosuppression, cancer cells can survive chemotherapies and acquire drug resistance through dormancy and immunosuppression. Cancer cells can also regulate the downstream of UPR to modulate angiogenesis and promote metastasis. In the end, regulating UPR through different molecular mechanisms may provide promising anticancer treatment options by suppressing cancer proliferation and progression.
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22
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Shen C, Zhang M, Chen Y, Zhang L, Wang G, Chen J, Chen S, Li Z, Wei F, Chen J, Yang K, Guo S, Wang Y, Zheng Q, Yu H, Luo W, Zhang J, Chen H, Chen Y, Xia N. An IgM antibody targeting the receptor binding site of influenza B blocks viral infection with great breadth and potency. Theranostics 2019; 9:210-231. [PMID: 30662563 PMCID: PMC6332795 DOI: 10.7150/thno.28434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) targeting the receptor binding site (RBS) of hemagglutinin (HA) have potential for developing into powerful anti-influenza agents. Several previously reported influenza B bnAbs are nevertheless unable to neutralize a portion of influenza B virus variants. HA-specific bnAbs with hemagglutination inhibition (HI) activity may possess the ability to block virus entry directly. Polymeric IgM antibodies are expected to more effectively inhibit virus attachment and entry into target cells due to their higher avidity and/or steric hindrance. We therefore hypothesized that certain RBS-targeted IgM antibodies with strong cross-lineage HI activity might display broader and more potent antiviral activity against rapidly evolving influenza B viruses. Methods: In this study, we generated IgM and IgG bnAbs targeting the RBS of influenza B virus using the murine hybridoma technique. IgM and IgG versions of the same antibodies were then developed by isotype switching and characterized in subsequent in vitro and in vivo experiments. Results: Two IgM and two IgG bnAbs against influenza B virus HA were identified. Of these, one IgM subtype antibody, C7G6-IgM, showed strong HI and neutralization activities against all 20 representative influenza B strains tested, with higher potency and broader breadth of anti-influenza activity in vitro than the IgG subtype variant of itself, or other previously-reported influenza B bnAbs. Furthermore, C7G6-IgM conferred excellent cross-protection against distinct lineages of influenza B viruses in mice and ferrets, performing better than the anti-influenza drug oseltamivir, and showed an additive antiviral effect when administered in combination with oseltamivir. Mechanistically, C7G6-IgM potently inhibits infection with influenza B virus strains from different lineages by blocking viral entry. Conclusion: In summary, our study highlights the potential of IgM subtype antibodies in combatting pathogenic microbes. Moreover, C7G6-IgM is a promising candidate for the development of prophylactics or therapeutics against influenza B infection.
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23
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Kao C, Chandna R, Ghode A, Dsouza C, Chen M, Larsson A, Lim SH, Wang M, Cao Z, Zhu Y, Anand GS, Ge R. Proapoptotic Cyclic Peptide BC71 Targets Cell-Surface GRP78 and Functions as an Anticancer Therapeutic in Mice. EBioMedicine 2018; 33:22-32. [PMID: 29907328 PMCID: PMC6085501 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose regulated protein 78 kDa (GRP78) is a recently emerged target for cancer therapy and a biomarker for cancer prognosis. Overexpression of GRP78 is observed in many types of cancers, with the cell-surface GRP78 being preferentially present in cancer cells and cancer blood vessel endothelial cells. Isthmin (ISM) is a secreted high-affinity proapoptotic protein ligand of cell-surface GRP78 that suppresses angiogenesis and tumor growth in mice. The C-terminal AMOP (adhesion-associated domain in MUC4 and other proteins) domain of ISM is critical in mediating its interaction with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In this work, we report novel cyclic peptides harboring the RKD motif in the ISM AMOP domain that function as proapoptotic ligands of cell-surface GRP78. The most potent peptide, BC71, binds to GRP78 and converge to tumor in mice. Intravenous administration of BC71 suppressed xenograft tumor growth in mice as a single agent, with significant reduction in tumor angiogenesis and upsurge in apoptosis. Fluorescent-labeled BC71 accumulates in tumor in mice by targeting cell-surface GRP78. We show that BC71 triggers apoptosis via cell-surface GRP78 and activates caspase-8 and p53 signaling pathways in HUVECs. Using amide hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDXMS), we identified that BC71 preferentially binds to ATP-bound GRP78 via amino acid residues 244-257 of GRP78. Hence, BC71 serves as a valuable prototype for further development of peptidomimetic anticancer drugs targeting cell-surface GRP78 as well as PET imaging agents for cancer prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieh Kao
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Ritu Chandna
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Abhijeet Ghode
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Charlotte Dsouza
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Mo Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Andreas Larsson
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 639798, Singapore
| | - Siau Hoi Lim
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 639798, Singapore
| | - Minjun Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Rd, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhonglian Cao
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Rd, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yizhun Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 Zhangheng Rd, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Ganesh S Anand
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Ruowen Ge
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore.
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24
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Cuesta-Mateos C, Alcaraz-Serna A, Somovilla-Crespo B, Muñoz-Calleja C. Monoclonal Antibody Therapies for Hematological Malignancies: Not Just Lineage-Specific Targets. Front Immunol 2018; 8:1936. [PMID: 29387053 PMCID: PMC5776327 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a widespread and necessary tool for biomedical science. In the hematological cancer field, since rituximab became the first mAb approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of B-cell malignancies, a number of effective mAbs targeting lineage-specific antigens (LSAs) have been successfully developed. Non-LSAs (NLSAs) are molecules that are not restricted to specific leukocyte subsets or tissues but play relevant pathogenic roles in blood cancers including the development, proliferation, survival, and refractoriness to therapy of tumor cells. In consequence, efforts to target NLSAs have resulted in a plethora of mAbs-marketed or in development-to achieve different goals like neutralizing oncogenic pathways, blocking tumor-related chemotactic pathways, mobilizing malignant cells from tumor microenvironment to peripheral blood, modulating immune-checkpoints, or delivering cytotoxic drugs into tumor cells. Here, we extensively review several novel mAbs directed against NLSAs undergoing clinical evaluation for treating hematological malignancies. The review focuses on the structure of these antibodies, proposed mechanisms of action, efficacy and safety profile in clinical studies, and their potential applications in the treatment of hematological malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Cuesta-Mateos
- Servicio de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Madrid, Spain
- IMMED S.L., Immunological and Medicinal Products, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Alcaraz-Serna
- Servicio de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Somovilla-Crespo
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cecilia Muñoz-Calleja
- Servicio de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de La Princesa, Madrid, Spain
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25
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Ramakrishnan V, Gomez M, Prasad V, Kimlinger T, Painuly U, Mukhopadhyay B, Haug J, Bi L, Rajkumar SV, Kumar S. Smac mimetic LCL161 overcomes protective ER stress induced by obatoclax, synergistically causing cell death in multiple myeloma. Oncotarget 2018; 7:56253-56265. [PMID: 27494845 PMCID: PMC5302912 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bcl2 and IAP families are anti-apoptotic proteins deregulated in multiple myeloma (MM) cells. Pharmacological inhibition of each of these families has shown significant activity only in subgroups of MM patients. Here, we have examined a broad-spectrum Bcl2 family inhibitor Obatoclax (OBX) in combination with a Smac mimetic LCL161 in MM cell lines and patient cells. LCL161/OBX combination induced synergistic cytotoxicity and anti-proliferative effects on a broad range of human MM cell lines. The cytotoxicity was mediated through inhibition of the IAPs, activation of caspases and up regulation of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bid, Bim, Puma and Noxa by the drug combination. In addition, we observed that OBX caused ER stress and activated the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) leading to drug resistance. LCL161, however inhibited spliced Xbp-1, a pro-survival factor. In addition, we observed that OBX increased GRP78 localization to the cell surface, which then induced PI3K dependent Akt activation and resistance to cell death. LCL161 was able to block OBX induced Akt activation contributing to synergistic cell death. Our results support clinical evaluation of this combination strategy in relapsed refractory MM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcus Gomez
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Vivek Prasad
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Utkarsh Painuly
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,4th Department of Internal Medicine-Hematology, University Hospital Hradec Kralove and Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | | | - Jessica Haug
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Lintao Bi
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,The Department of Hematology and Oncology, China-Japan Union Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | | | - Shaji Kumar
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Wang SH, Yu J. Structure-based design for binding peptides in anti-cancer therapy. Biomaterials 2017; 156:1-15. [PMID: 29182932 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The conventional anticancer therapeutics usually lack cancer specificity, leading to damage of normal tissues that patients find hard to tolerate. Ideally, anticancer therapeutics carrying payloads of drugs equipped with cancer targeting peptides can act like "guided missiles" with the capacity of targeted delivery toward many types of cancers. Peptides are amenable for conjugation to nano drugs for functionalization, thereby improving drug delivery and cellular uptake in cancer-targeting therapies. Peptide drugs are often more difficult to design through molecular docking and in silico analysis than small molecules, because peptide structures are more flexible, possess intricate molecular conformations, and undergo complex interactions. In this review, the development and application of strategies for structure-based design of cancer-targeting peptides against GRP78 are discussed. This Review also covers topics related to peptide pharmacokinetics and targeting delivery, including molecular docking studies, features that provide advantages for in vivo use, and properties that influence the cancer-targeting ability. Some advanced technologies and special peptides that can overcome the pharmacokinetic challenges have also been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Hung Wang
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - John Yu
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Bach M, Lehmann A, Brünnert D, Vanselow JT, Hartung A, Bargou RC, Holzgrabe U, Schlosser A, Chatterjee M. Ugi Reaction-Derived α-Acyl Aminocarboxamides Bind to Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-Related Kinases, Inhibit HSF1-Dependent Heat Shock Response, and Induce Apoptosis in Multiple Myeloma Cells. J Med Chem 2017; 60:4147-4160. [PMID: 28453931 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) has been identified as a therapeutic target for pharmacological treatment of multiple myeloma (MM). However, direct therapeutic targeting of HSF1 function seems to be difficult due to the shortage of clinically suitable pharmacological inhibitors. We utilized the Ugi multicomponent reaction to create a small but smart library of α-acyl aminocarboxamides and evaluated their ability to suppress heat shock response (HSR) in MM cells. Using the INA-6 cell line as the MM model and the strictly HSF1-dependent HSP72 induction as a HSR model, we identified potential HSF1 inhibitors. Mass spectrometry-based affinity capture experiments with biotin-linked derivatives revealed a number of target proteins and complexes, which exhibit an armadillo domain. Also, four members of the tumor-promoting and HSF1-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase (PIKK) family were identified. The antitumor activity was evaluated, showing that treatment with the anti-HSF1 compounds strongly induced apoptotic cell death in MM cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Bach
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg , Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anna Lehmann
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Brünnert
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Translational Oncology, University Hospital of Würzburg , Versbacher Straße 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jens T Vanselow
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg , Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Hartung
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ralf C Bargou
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital of Würzburg , Versbacher Straße 5, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Holzgrabe
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Schlosser
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg , Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Manik Chatterjee
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Translational Oncology, University Hospital of Würzburg , Versbacher Straße 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
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Expression and release of glucose-regulated protein-78 (GRP78) in multiple myeloma. Oncotarget 2017; 8:56243-56254. [PMID: 28915587 PMCID: PMC5593558 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell neoplasm that is mostly incurable due to acquired resistance during the treatment course. Thus, we evaluated expression and release of glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa (GRP78/BiP), an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) based pro-survival chaperone involved in immunoglobulin folding and unfolded protein responses. Results GRP78 protein expression in the ER and on the cell surface did not significantly differ between MGUS, NDMM and RRMM patients although there was a trend to higher surface expression in RRMM. In bone marrow plasma, the amount of released GRP78 protein was not significantly increased between MGUS-, NDMM- and RRMM patients. MM cells of the three cell lines release GRP78 as full-length protein under apoptotic, but not under acidotic or ER-stress conditions. In necrosis, only proteolytic fragments of GRP78 were detected in supernatants of MM cells. Materials and Methods GRP78 protein expression and plasma levels were quantified in bone marrow aspirates of patients with monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS, n = 29), newly diagnosed MM (NDMM, n = 29) and with relapsed/refractory MM (RRMM, n = 15) by immunohistochemistry and sandwich ELISA. The human MM cell lines U266, NCI-H929 and OPM-2 were used for functional GRP78 release- and processing studies after induction of acidosis, ER stress, apoptosis and necrosis. Conclusions Ectopic expression of GRP78 on cell membrane or its release in the microenvironment is not a suitable marker to distinguish MGUS from NDMM and RRMM.
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In vivo amelioration of endogenous antitumor autoantibodies via low-dose P4N through the LTA4H/activin A/BAFF pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E7798-E7807. [PMID: 27856749 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1604752113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer progression is associated with the development of antitumor autoantibodies in patients' sera. Although passive treatment with antitumor antibodies has exhibited remarkable therapeutic efficacy, inhibitory effects on tumor progression by endogenous antitumor autoantibodies (EAAs) have been limited. In this study, we show that P4N, a derivative of the plant lignan nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), enhanced the production of EAAs and inhibited tumor growth at low noncytotoxic concentrations via its immunoregulatory activity. Intratumoral injection of P4N improved the quantity and quality of EAAs, and passive transfer of P4N-induced EAAs dramatically suppressed lung metastasis formation and prolonged the survival of mice inoculated with metastatic CT26 tumor cells. P4N-induced EAAs specifically recognized two surface antigens, 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) and F1F0 ATP synthase, on the plasma membrane of cancer cells. Additionally, P4N treatment led to B-cell proliferation, differentiation to plasma cells, and high titers of autoantibody production. By serial induction of autocrine and paracrine signals in monocytes, P4N increased B-cell proliferation and antibody production via the leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H)/activin A/B-cell activating factor (BAFF) pathway. This mechanism provides a useful platform for studying and seeking a novel immunomodulator that can be applied in targeting therapy by improving the quantity and quality of the EAAs.
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Al-Hujaily EM, Oldham RAA, Hari P, Medin JA. Development of Novel Immunotherapies for Multiple Myeloma. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1506. [PMID: 27618026 PMCID: PMC5037783 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17091506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is a disorder of terminally differentiated plasma cells characterized by clonal expansion in the bone marrow (BM). It is the second-most common hematologic malignancy. Despite significant advances in therapeutic strategies, MM remains a predominantly incurable disease emphasizing the need for the development of new treatment regimens. Immunotherapy is a promising treatment modality to circumvent challenges in the management of MM. Many novel immunotherapy strategies, such as adoptive cell therapy and monoclonal antibodies, are currently under investigation in clinical trials, with some already demonstrating a positive impact on patient survival. In this review, we will summarize the current standards of care and discuss major new approaches in immunotherapy for MM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ensaf M Al-Hujaily
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Robyn A A Oldham
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1L7, Canada.
| | - Parameswaran Hari
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Jeffrey A Medin
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1L7, Canada.
- The Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
- Cancer Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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31
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Kapoor V, Dadey DYA, Nguyen K, Wildman SA, Hoye K, Khudanyan A, Bandara N, Rogers BE, Thotala D, Hallahan DE. Tumor-Specific Binding of Radiolabeled PEGylated GIRLRG Peptide: A Novel Agent for Targeting Cancers. J Nucl Med 2016; 57:1991-1997. [PMID: 27445290 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.115.165118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer-specific targeting sparing normal tissues would significantly enhance cancer therapy outcomes and reduce cancer-related mortality. One approach is to target receptors or molecules that are specifically expressed on cancer cells. Peptides as cancer-specific targeting agents offer advantages such as ease of synthesis, low antigenicity, and enhanced diffusion into tissues. Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is an endoplasmic reticulum stress chaperone that regulates the unfolded protein response and is overexpressed in various cancers. In this study, we evaluated GIRLRG peptide that specifically targets GRP78 for cancer-specific binding (in vitro) and noninvasive tumor imaging (in vivo). METHODS GIRLRG peptide was modeled into the GRP78 ATPase domain using computational modeling. Surface plasmon resonance studies were performed to determine the affinity of GIRLRG peptide to GRP78 protein. GIRLRG was conjugated with PEG to prolong its circulation in mice. Tumor binding efficacy of PEG-GIRLRG peptide was evaluated in nude mice bearing heterotopic cervical (HT3), esophageal (OE33), pancreatic (BXPC3), lung (A549), and glioma (D54) tumors. Nano-SPECT/CT imaging of the mice was performed 48 and 72 h after injection with 111In-labeled PEG-GIRLRG or PEG-control peptide. Post-SPECT biodistribution studies were performed 96 h after injection of the radiolabeled peptides. RESULTS Using molecular modeling and surface plasmon resonance, we identified that GIRLRG was binding with an affinity constant of 2.16 × 10-3 M in the ATPase domain of GRP78. GIRLRG peptide specifically bound to cervical, lung, esophageal, and glioma cells. SPECT imaging revealed that 111In-PEG-GIRLRG specifically bound to cervical, esophageal, pancreatic, lung, and brain tumors. Post-SPECT biodistribution data also validated the SPECT imaging results. CONCLUSION GIRLRG peptide specifically binds to the ATPase domain of GRP78. Radiolabeled PEG-GIRLRG could be used to target various cancers. Further studies would be required to translate PEG-GIRLRG peptide into the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Kapoor
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - David Y A Dadey
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Kim Nguyen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.,Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Scott A Wildman
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Kelly Hoye
- Medical Guidance Systems, St. Louis, Missouri; and
| | - Arpine Khudanyan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Nilantha Bandara
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.,Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Buck E Rogers
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.,Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Dinesh Thotala
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri .,Siteman Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Dennis E Hallahan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri .,Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.,Siteman Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
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32
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Moh ESX, Lin CH, Thaysen-Andersen M, Packer NH. Site-Specific N-Glycosylation of Recombinant Pentameric and Hexameric Human IgM. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2016; 27:1143-1155. [PMID: 27038031 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-016-1378-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylation is known to play an important role in IgG antibody structure and function. Polymeric IgM, the largest known antibody in humans, displays five potential N-glycosylation sites on each heavy chain monomer. IgM can exist as a pentamer with a connecting singly N-glycosylated J-chain (with a total of 51 glycosylation sites) or as a hexamer (60 glycosylation sites). In this study, the N-glycosylation of recombinant pentameric and hexameric IgM produced by the same human cell type and culture conditions was site-specifically profiled by RP-LC-CID/ETD-MS/MS using HILIC-enriched tryptic and GluC glycopeptides. The occupancy of all putative N-glycosylation sites on the pentameric and hexameric IgM were able to be determined. Distinct glycosylation differences were observed between each of the five N-linked sites on the IgM heavy chains. While Asn171, Asn332, and Asn395 all had predominantly complex type glycans, differences in glycan branching and sialylation were observed between the sites. Asn563, a high mannose-rich glycosylation site that locates in the center of the IgM polymer, was only approximately 60% occupied in both the pentameric and hexameric IgM forms, with a difference in relative abundance of the glycan structures between the pentamer and hexamer. This study highlights the information obtained by characterization of the site-heterogeneity of a highly glycosylated protein of high molecular mass with quaternary structure, revealing differences that would not be seen by global glycan or deglycosylated peptide profiling. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward S X Moh
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Chi-Hung Lin
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Morten Thaysen-Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Nicolle H Packer
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
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Immunoglubolin dynamics and cancer prevalence in Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii). Sci Rep 2016; 6:25093. [PMID: 27126067 PMCID: PMC4850387 DOI: 10.1038/srep25093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunoglobulins such as IgG and IgM have been shown to induce anti-tumour cytotoxic activity. In the present study we therefore explore total serum IgG and IgM expression dynamics in 23 known-aged Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) of which 9 where affected by Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD). DFTD is clonally transmissible cancer that has caused massive declines in devil numbers. Our analyses revealed that IgM and IgG expression levels as well as IgM/IgG ratios decreased with increasing devil age. Neither age, sex, IgM nor IgG expression levels affected devil DFTD status in our analyses. However, devils with increased IgM relative to IgG expression levels had significantly lower DFTD prevalence. Our results therefore suggest that IgM/IgG ratios may play an important role in determining devil susceptibility to DFTD. We consequently propose that our findings warrant further studies to elucidate the underpinning(s) of devil IgM/IgG ratios and DFTD status.
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Wang SH, Lee ACL, Chen IJ, Chang NC, Wu HC, Yu HM, Chang YJ, Lee TW, Yu JC, Yu AL, Yu J. Structure-based optimization of GRP78-binding peptides that enhances efficacy in cancer imaging and therapy. Biomaterials 2016; 94:31-44. [PMID: 27088408 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
It is more challenging to design peptide drugs than small molecules through molecular docking and in silico analysis. Here, we developed a structure-based approach with various computational and analytical techniques to optimize cancer-targeting peptides for molecular imaging and therapy. We first utilized a peptide-binding protein database to identify GRP78, a specific cancer cell-surface marker, as a target protein for the lead, L-peptide. Subsequently, we used homologous modeling and molecular docking to identify a peptide-binding domain within GRP78 and optimized a series of peptides with a new protein-ligand scoring program, HotLig. Binding of these peptides to GRP78 was confirmed using an oriented immobilization technique for the Biacore system. We further examined the ability of the peptides to target cancer cells through in vitro binding studies with cell lines and clinical cancer specimens, and in vivo tumor imaging and targeted chemotherapeutic studies. MicroSPECT/CT imaging revealed significantly greater uptake of (188)Re-liposomes linked to these peptides as compared with non-targeting (188)Re-liposomes. Conjugation with these peptides also significantly increased the therapeutic efficacy of Lipo-Dox. Notably, peptide-conjugated Lipo-Dox significantly reduced stem-cell subpopulation in xenografts of breast cancer. The structure-based optimization strategy for peptides described here may be useful for developing peptide drugs for cancer imaging and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Hung Wang
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Andy Chi-Lung Lee
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - I-Ju Chen
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Nai-Chuan Chang
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Han-Chung Wu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan; Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Ming Yu
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Jen Chang
- Isotope Application Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taiwan
| | - Te-Wei Lee
- Isotope Application Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taiwan
| | - Jyh-Cherng Yu
- General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Alice L Yu
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, University of California in San Diego, USA.
| | - John Yu
- Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Rasche L, Menoret E, Dubljevic V, Menu E, Vanderkerken K, Lapa C, Steinbrunn T, Chatterjee M, Knop S, Düll J, Greenwood DL, Hensel F, Rosenwald A, Einsele H, Brändlein S. A GRP78-Directed Monoclonal Antibody Recaptures Response in Refractory Multiple Myeloma with Extramedullary Involvement. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:4341-9. [DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-15-3111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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36
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Gopal U, Gonzalez-Gronow M, Pizzo SV. Activated α2-Macroglobulin Regulates Transcriptional Activation of c-MYC Target Genes through Cell Surface GRP78 Protein. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:10904-15. [PMID: 27002159 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.708131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated α2-macroglobulin (α2M*) signals predominantly through cell surface GRP78 (CS-GRP78) to promote proliferation and survival of cancer cells; however, the molecular mechanism remains obscure. c-MYC is an essential transcriptional regulator that controls cell proliferation. We hypothesize that α2M*/CS-GRP78-evoked key signaling events are required for transcriptional activation of c-MYC target genes. Activation of CS-GRP78 by α2M* requires ligation of the GRP78 primary amino acid sequence (Leu(98)-Leu(115)). After stimulation with α2M*, CS-GRP78 signaling activates 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1) to induce phosphorylation of PLK1, which in turn induces c-MYC transcription. We demonstrate that PLK1 binds directly to c-MYC and promotes its transcriptional activity by phosphorylating Ser(62) Moreover, activated c-MYC is recruited to the E-boxes of target genes FOSL1 and ID2 by phosphorylating histone H3 at Ser(10) In addition, targeting the carboxyl-terminal domain of CS-GRP78 with a mAb suppresses transcriptional activation of c-MYC target genes and impairs cell proliferation. This work demonstrates that α2M*/CS-GRP78 acts as an upstream regulator of the PDK1/PLK1 signaling axis to modulate c-MYC transcription and its target genes, suggesting a therapeutic strategy for targeting c-MYC-associated malignant progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udhayakumar Gopal
- From the Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Mario Gonzalez-Gronow
- From the Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Salvatore Vincent Pizzo
- From the Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
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Melanoma and the Unfolded Protein Response. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8030030. [PMID: 26927180 PMCID: PMC4810114 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8030030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The UPR (unfolded protein response) has been identified as a key factor in the progression and metastasis of cancers, notably melanoma. Several mediators of the UPR are upregulated in cancers, e.g., high levels of GRP78 (glucose-regulator protein 78 kDa) correlate with progression and poor outcome in melanoma patients. The proliferative burden of cancer induces stress and activates several cellular stress responses. The UPR is a tightly orchestrated stress response that is activated upon the accumulation of unfolded proteins within the ER (endoplasmic reticulum). The UPR is designed to mediate two conflicting outcomtes, recovery and apoptosis. As a result, the UPR initiates a widespread signaling cascade to return the cell to homeostasis and failing to achieve cellular recovery, initiates UPR-induced apoptosis. There is evidence that ER stress and subsequently the UPR promote tumourigenesis and metastasis. The complete role of the UPR has yet to be defined. Understanding how the UPR allows for adaption to stress and thereby assists in cancer progression is important in defining an archetype of melanoma pathology. In addition, elucidation of the mechanisms of the UPR may lead to development of effective treatments of metastatic melanoma.
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Wang Y, Wang X, Ferrone CR, Schwab JH, Ferrone S. Intracellular antigens as targets for antibody based immunotherapy of malignant diseases. Mol Oncol 2015; 9:1982-93. [PMID: 26597109 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2015.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review discusses the potential use of intracellular tumor antigens as targets of antibody-based immunotherapy for the treatment of solid tumors. In addition, it describes the characteristics of the intracellular tumor antigens targeted with antibodies which have been described in the literature and have been identified in the authors' laboratory. Finally, the mechanism underlying the trafficking of the intracellular tumor antigens to the plasma membrane of tumor cells are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Wang
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Xinhui Wang
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Cristina R Ferrone
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Joseph H Schwab
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States
| | - Soldano Ferrone
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States.
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Rodvold JJ, Mahadevan NR, Zanetti M. Immune modulation by ER stress and inflammation in the tumor microenvironment. Cancer Lett 2015; 380:227-36. [PMID: 26525580 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
It is now increasingly evident that the immune system represents a barrier to tumor emergence, growth, and recurrence. Although this idea was originally proposed almost 50 years ago as the "immune surveillance hypothesis", it is commonly recognized that, with few rare exceptions, tumor cells always prevail. Thus, one of the central unsolved paradoxes of tumor immunology is how a tumor escapes immune control, which is reflected in the lack of effective autochthonous or vaccine-induced anti-tumor T cell responses. In this review, we discuss the role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response/unfolded protein response (UPR) in the immunomodulation of myeloid cells and T cells. Specifically, we will discuss how the tumor cell UPR polarizes myeloid cells in a cell-extrinsic manner, and how in turn, thus polarized myeloid cells negatively affect T cell activation and clonal expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Rodvold
- The Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Medicine and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093-0815
| | - Navin R Mahadevan
- The Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Medicine and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093-0815
| | - Maurizio Zanetti
- The Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Medicine and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093-0815.
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40
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Abstract
Over 230,000 new cases of invasive breast cancer are diagnosed annually within the USA. Recurrent breast cancer remains a mostly incurable disease with drug resistance, tumor latency and distant metastases driving breast tumor recurrence and morbidity. Understanding drug resistance is a critical component of combating breast cancer. Recently, the protein chaperone GRP78 and the unfolded protein response were implicated as drivers of drug resistance. Preclinical studies show inhibiting GRP78 can reverse drug resistance. Furthermore, drugs developed to target GRP78 show clinical promise in several ongoing clinical trials.
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Kharabi Masouleh B, Chevet E, Panse J, Jost E, O'Dwyer M, Bruemmendorf TH, Samali A. Drugging the unfolded protein response in acute leukemias. J Hematol Oncol 2015; 8:87. [PMID: 26179601 PMCID: PMC4504168 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-015-0184-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR), an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced signaling cascade, is mediated by three major stress sensors IRE-1α, PERK, and ATF6α. Studies described the UPR as a critical network in selection, adaptation, and survival of cancer cells. While previous reviews focused mainly on solid cancer cells, in this review, we summarize the recent findings focusing on acute leukemias. We take into account the impact of the underlying genetic alterations of acute leukemia cells, the leukemia stem cell pool, and provide an outline on the current genetic, clinical, and therapeutic findings. Furthermore, we shed light on the important oncogene-specific regulation of individual UPR signaling branches and the therapeutic relevance of this information to answer the question if the UPR could be an attractive novel target in acute leukemias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behzad Kharabi Masouleh
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Eric Chevet
- Université Rennes 1 - ER_440 "Oncogenesis, Stress & Signaling", Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer Eugène Marquis, Rennes, France
| | - Jens Panse
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Edgar Jost
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael O'Dwyer
- Apoptosis Research Centre (ARC), National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.,Department of Medicine, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Tim H Bruemmendorf
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Afshin Samali
- Apoptosis Research Centre (ARC), National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.,Department of Biochemistry, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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42
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Evasion and interactions of the humoral innate immune response in pathogen invasion, autoimmune disease, and cancer. Clin Immunol 2015; 160:244-54. [PMID: 26145788 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2015.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The humoral innate immune system is composed of three major branches, complement, coagulation, and natural antibodies. To persist in the host, pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and cancers must evade parts of the innate humoral immune system. Disruptions in the humoral innate immune system also play a role in the development of autoimmune diseases. This review will examine how Gram positive bacteria, viruses, cancer, and the autoimmune conditions systemic lupus erythematosus and anti-phospholipid syndrome, interact with these immune system components. Through examining evasion techniques it becomes clear that an interplay between these three systems exists. By exploring the interplay and the evasion/disruption of the humoral innate immune system, we can develop a better understanding of pathogenic infections, cancer, and autoimmune disease development.
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43
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Selection and identification of ligand peptides targeting a model of castrate-resistant osteogenic prostate cancer and their receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:3776-81. [PMID: 25762070 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1500128112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We performed combinatorial peptide library screening in vivo on a novel human prostate cancer xenograft that is androgen-independent and induces a robust osteoblastic reaction in bonelike matrix and soft tissue. We found two peptides, PKRGFQD and SNTRVAP, which were enriched in the tumors, targeted the cell surface of androgen-independent prostate cancer cells in vitro, and homed to androgen receptor-null prostate cancer in vivo. Purification of tumor homogenates by affinity chromatography on these peptides and subsequent mass spectrometry revealed a receptor for the peptide PKRGFQD, α-2-macroglobulin, and for SNTRVAP, 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78). These results indicate that GRP78 and α-2-macroglobulin are highly active in osteoblastic, androgen-independent prostate cancer in vivo. These previously unidentified ligand-receptor systems should be considered for targeted drug development against human metastatic androgen-independent prostate cancer.
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Chromikova V, Mader A, Hofbauer S, Göbl C, Madl T, Gach JS, Bauernfried S, Furtmüller PG, Forthal DN, Mach L, Obinger C, Kunert R. Introduction of germline residues improves the stability of anti-HIV mAb 2G12-IgM. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2015; 1854:1536-44. [PMID: 25748881 PMCID: PMC4582045 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2015.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Immunoglobulins M (IgMs) are gaining increasing attention as biopharmaceuticals since their multivalent mode of binding can give rise to high avidity. Furthermore, IgMs are potent activators of the complement system. However, they are frequently difficult to express recombinantly and can suffer from low conformational stability. Here, the broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibody 2G12 was class-switched to IgM and then further engineered by introduction of 17 germline residues. The impact of these changes on the structure and conformational stability of the antibody was then assessed using a range of biophysical techniques. We also investigated the effects of the class switch and germline substitutions on the ligand-binding properties of 2G12 and its capacity for HIV-1 neutralization. Our results demonstrate that the introduced germline residues improve the conformational and thermal stability of 2G12-IgM without altering its overall shape and ligand-binding properties. Interestingly, the engineered protein was found to exhibit much lower neutralization potency than its wild-type counterpart, indicating that potent antigen recognition is not solely responsible for IgM-mediated HIV-1 inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Chromikova
- Department of Biotechnology, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Mader
- Department of Biotechnology, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefan Hofbauer
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; Department for Structural and Computational Biology, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Göbl
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich at Chair of Biomolecular NMR Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Garching, Germany; Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Tobias Madl
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich at Chair of Biomolecular NMR Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Garching, Germany; Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany; Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Center of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Johannes S Gach
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of CA, Irvine, USA
| | - Stefan Bauernfried
- Department of Biotechnology, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Paul G Furtmüller
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Donald N Forthal
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of CA, Irvine, USA
| | - Lukas Mach
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Obinger
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Renate Kunert
- Department of Biotechnology, Vienna Institute of BioTechnology at BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
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45
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Tsai YL, Zhang Y, Tseng CC, Stanciauskas R, Pinaud F, Lee AS. Characterization and mechanism of stress-induced translocation of 78-kilodalton glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) to the cell surface. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:8049-64. [PMID: 25673690 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.618736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose-regulated protein (GRP78)/BiP, a major chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum, is recently discovered to be preferably expressed on the surface of stressed cancer cells, where it regulates critical oncogenic signaling pathways and is emerging as a target for anti-cancer therapy while sparing normal organs. However, because GRP78 does not contain classical transmembrane domains, its mechanism of transport and its anchoring at the cell surface are poorly understood. Using a combination of biochemical, mutational, FACS, and single molecule super-resolution imaging approaches, we discovered that GRP78 majorly exists as a peripheral protein on plasma membrane via interaction with other cell surface proteins including glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins. Moreover, cell surface GRP78 expression requires its substrate binding activity but is independent of ATP binding or a membrane insertion motif conserved with HSP70. Unexpectedly, different cancer cell lines rely on different mechanisms for GRP78 cell surface translocation, implying that the process is cell context-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Li Tsai
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California 90089-9176 and
| | - Yi Zhang
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California 90089-9176 and
| | - Chun-Chih Tseng
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California 90089-9176 and
| | | | - Fabien Pinaud
- Department of Biological Sciences, Department of Chemistry, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089
| | - Amy S Lee
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California 90089-9176 and
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46
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Rasche L, Duell J, Castro IC, Dubljevic V, Chatterjee M, Knop S, Hensel F, Rosenwald A, Einsele H, Topp MS, Brändlein S. GRP78-directed immunotherapy in relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma - results from a phase 1 trial with the monoclonal immunoglobulin M antibody PAT-SM6. Haematologica 2015; 100:377-84. [PMID: 25637055 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2014.117945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The primary objective of this phase 1 study was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of the anti-glucose regulated protein 78 monoclonal immunoglobulin M antibody PAT-SM6 in subjects with relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. Twelve heavily pretreated patients received four intravenous infusions of PAT-SM6 at doses of 0.3, 1, 3, and 6 mg/kg within 2 weeks. Efficacy, pharmacokinetics and immunogenicity were followed up until the end of the trial (day 36). In addition, immune cell patterns in peripheral blood were assessed by flow cytometry and glucose regulated protein 78 expression status was evaluated in bone marrow specimens by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry at screening. All doses administered were found to be safe and well tolerated; the maximum tolerated dose was not reached. The most common treatment emergent adverse event was leukopenia (grades 1 and 2) in eight out of the 12 multiple myeloma patients. Pharmacokinetic analysis demonstrated dose-proportional increases in drug serum concentration. The terminal half-life ranged from 5.86 to 8.41 h, the apparent volume of distribution ranged from 101 to 150 mL/kg, and clearance ranged from 8.11 to 16.1 mL/h/kg. All patients showed glucose regulated protein 78 surface expression on multiple myeloma cells. Four out of the 12 patients (33.3 %) had stable disease, according to the International Myeloma Working Group criteria, after PAT-SM6 treatment across the doses 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg. In summary, single-agent PAT-SM6 was well tolerated with modest clinical activity in relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. Further trials exploring the combination of PAT-SM6 with existing myeloma therapies are planned. TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT01727778.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo Rasche
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Duell
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Manik Chatterjee
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Knop
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Rosenwald
- Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Germany, and Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Germany
| | - Hermann Einsele
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | - Max S Topp
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Germany
| | - Stephanie Brändlein
- Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Germany, and Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Germany
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47
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Lu T, Yang W, Wang Z, Hu Z, Zeng X, Yang C, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Li F, Liu Z, Wang D, Ye Z. Knockdown of glucose-regulated protein 78/binding immunoglobulin heavy chain protein expression by asymmetric small interfering RNA induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells and attenuates migratory capability. Mol Med Rep 2014; 11:249-56. [PMID: 25338653 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose-regulated protein 78 [GRP78, also termed binding immunoglobulin heavy chain protein (Bip)] may be involved in cancer progression and metastasis. However, to date there has been minimal investigation into its potential role in human prostate cancer cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that asymmetric small interfering RNA (asiRNA)-mediated gene silencing is more effective and longer-lasting than conventional symmetric siRNA. Thus, the current study aimed to investigate the effects of GRP78-specific asiRNA on human prostate cancer cells. A series of asiRNAs was synthesized and their efficiency in silencing GRP78 expression in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells was evaluated. The effects of knockdown using asiRNAs were compared to those of knockdown using symmetric siRNAs. The effect of GRP78 silencing on PC-3 cell apoptosis and migration, and the possible mechanisms governing these biological processes were examined. Compared with the symmetric siRNA, transfection with the 15 base pair asiRNA (asiGRP78-3) resulted in greater downregulation of GRP78 expression. GRP78 depletion in PC-3 cells resulted in increased apoptosis and decreased migration of these cells. Experiments investigating the underlying mechanisms of these effects revealed that knockdown of GRP78 attenuated protein kinase B activation and decreased the expression of pro-caspase 9, pro-caspase 3 and vimentin. In conclusion, knockdown of GRP78/Bip expression with asymmetric siRNA led to increased prostate cancer cell apoptosis and reduced cellular migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Lu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Weimin Yang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhihua Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhiquan Hu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Xing Zeng
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Chunguang Yang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Fan Li
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhuo Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Dongbiao Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Zhangqun Ye
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
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48
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Nagelkerke A, Bussink J, Sweep FCGJ, Span PN. The unfolded protein response as a target for cancer therapy. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2014; 1846:277-84. [PMID: 25069067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Various physiological and pathological conditions generate an accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This results in ER stress followed by a cellular response to cope with this stress and restore homeostasis: the unfolded protein response (UPR). Overall, the UPR leads to general translational arrest and the induction of specific factors to ensure cell survival or to mediate cell death if the stress is too severe. In multiple cancers, components of the UPR are overexpressed, indicating increased dependence on the UPR. In addition, the UPR can confer resistance to anti-cancer treatment. Therefore, modification of the UPR should be explored for its anti-cancer properties. This review discusses factors associated with the UPR that represent potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika Nagelkerke
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Bussink
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Fred C G J Sweep
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul N Span
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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49
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Chen M, Zhang Y, Yu VC, Chong YS, Yoshioka T, Ge R. Isthmin targets cell-surface GRP78 and triggers apoptosis via induction of mitochondrial dysfunction. Cell Death Differ 2014; 21:797-810. [PMID: 24464222 PMCID: PMC3978310 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2014.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Isthmin (ISM) is a secreted 60-kDa protein that potently induces endothelial cell (EC) apoptosis. It suppresses tumor growth and angiogenesis in mice when stably overexpressed in cancer cells. Although αvβ5 integrin serves as a low-affinity receptor for ISM, the mechanism by which ISM mediates antiangiogenesis and apoptosis in ECs remain to be fully resolved. In this work, we report the identification of cell-surface glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa (GRP78) as a high-affinity receptor for ISM (Kd=8.6 nM). We demonstrated that ISM-GRP78 interaction triggers apoptosis not only in activated ECs but also in cancer cells expressing high level of cell-surface GRP78. Normal cells and benign tumor cells tend to express low level of cell-surface GRP78 and are resistant to ISM-induced apoptosis. Upon binding to GRP78, ISM is internalized into ECs through clathrin-dependent endocytosis that is essential for its proapoptotic activity. Once inside the cell, ISM co-targets with GRP78 to mitochondria where it interacts with ADP/ATP carriers on the inner membrane and blocks ATP transport from mitochondria to cytosol, thereby causing apoptosis. Hence, ISM is a novel proapoptotic ligand that targets cell-surface GRP78 to trigger apoptosis by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction. The restricted and high-level expression of cell-surface GRP78 on cancer cells and cancer ECs make them uniquely susceptible to ISM-targeted apoptosis. Indeed, systemic delivery of recombinant ISM potently suppressed subcutaneous 4T1 breast carcinoma and B16 melanoma growth in mice by eliciting apoptosis selectively in the cancer cells and cancer ECs. Together, this work reveals a novel ISM-GRP78 apoptosis pathway and demonstrates the potential of ISM as a cancer-specific and dual-targeting anticancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Y Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - V C Yu
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Y-S Chong
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - T Yoshioka
- Department of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan
| | - R Ge
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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50
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Abstract
The glucose-regulated proteins (GRPs) are stress-inducible chaperones that mostly reside in the endoplasmic reticulum or the mitochondria. Recent advances show that the GRPs have functions that are distinct from those of the related heat shock proteins, and they can be actively translocated to other cellular locations and assume novel functions that control signalling, proliferation, invasion, apoptosis, inflammation and immunity. Mouse models further identified their specific roles in development, tumorigenesis, metastasis and angiogenesis. This Review describes their discovery and regulation, as well as their biological functions in cancer. Promising agents that use or target the GRPs are being developed, and their efficacy as anticancer therapeutics is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, 1441 Eastlake Avenue, Room 5308, Los Angeles, California 900899176, USA
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