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Hoornstra D, Kuleshov KV, Fingerle V, Hepner S, Wagemakers A, Strube C, Castillo-Ramírez S, Bockenstedt LK, Telford SR, Sprong H, Platonov AE, Margos G, Hovius JW. Combining short- and long-read sequencing unveils geographically structured diversity in Borrelia miyamotoi. iScience 2024; 27:110616. [PMID: 39262806 PMCID: PMC11388275 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging Ixodes tick-borne human pathogen in the Northern hemisphere. The aim of the current study was to compare whole genome sequences of B. miyamotoi isolates from different continents. Using a combination of Illumina and PacBio platforms and a novel genome assembly and plasmid typing pipeline, we reveal that the 21 sequenced B. miyamotoi isolates and publically available B. miyamotoi genomes from North America, Asia, and Europe form genetically distinct populations and cluster according to their geographical origin, where distinct Ixodes species are endemic. We identified 20 linear and 17 circular plasmid types and the presence of specific plasmids for isolates originating from different continents. Linear plasmids lp12, lp23, lp41, and lp72 were core plasmids found in all isolates, with lp41 consistently containing the vmp expression site. Our data provide insights into the genetic basis of vector competence, virulence, and pathogenesis of B. miyamotoi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieuwertje Hoornstra
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Volker Fingerle
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Sabrina Hepner
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Alex Wagemakers
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Sam R Telford
- Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Hein Sprong
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | | | - Gabriele Margos
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Immunology & Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Kneubehl AR, Lopez JE. Comparative genomics analysis of three conserved plasmid families in the Western Hemisphere soft tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae provides insight into variation in genome structure and antigenic variation systems. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0089523. [PMID: 37737593 PMCID: PMC10580987 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00895-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Borrelia spirochetes, causative agents of Lyme disease and relapsing fever (RF), have uniquely complex genomes, consisting of a linear chromosome and both circular and linear plasmids. The plasmids harbor genes important for the vector-host life cycle of these tick-borne bacteria. The role of plasmids from Lyme disease causing spirochetes is more refined compared to RF Borrelia because of limited plasmid-resolved genome assemblies for the latter. We recently addressed this limitation and found that three linear plasmid families (F6, F27, and F28) were syntenic across all the RF Borrelia species that we examined. Given this conservation, we further investigated the three plasmid families. The F6 family, also known as the megaplasmid, contained regions of repetitive DNA. The F27 was the smallest, encoding genes with unknown function. The F28 family encoded the putative expression locus for antigenic variation in all species except Borrelia hermsii and Borrelia anserina. Taken together, this work provides a foundation for future investigations to identify essential plasmid-localized genes that drive the vector-host life cycle of RF Borrelia. IMPORTANCE Borrelia spp. spirochetes are arthropod-borne bacteria found globally that infect humans and other vertebrates. RF borreliae are understudied and misdiagnosed pathogens because of the vague clinical presentation of disease and the elusive feeding behavior of argasid ticks. Consequently, genomics resources for RF spirochetes have been limited. Analyses of Borrelia plasmids have been challenging because they are often highly fragmented and unassembled in most available genome assemblies. By utilizing Oxford Nanopore Technologies, we recently generated plasmid-resolved genome assemblies for seven Borrelia spp. found in the Western Hemisphere. This current study is an in-depth investigation into the linear plasmids that were conserved and syntenic across species. We identified differences in genome structure and, importantly, in antigenic variation systems between species. This work is an important step in identifying crucial plasmid-localized genetic elements essential for the life cycle of RF spirochetes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Job E. Lopez
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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Gofton AW, Popa-Baez A, Takano A, Soennichsen K, Michie M, Short M, Supriyono S, Pascoe J, Cusbert S, Mulley R. Characterisation and comparative genomics of three new Varanus-associated Borrelia spp. from Indonesia and Australia. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:317. [PMID: 37670353 PMCID: PMC10481545 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05937-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Borrelia are important disease-causing tick- and louse-borne spirochaetes than can infect a wide variety of vertebrates, including humans and reptiles. Reptile-associated (REP) Borrelia, once considered a peculiarity, are now recognised as a distinct and important evolutionary lineage, and are increasingly being discovered worldwide in association with novel hosts. Numerous novel Borrelia spp. associated with monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) have been recently identified throughout the Indo-Pacific region; however, there is a lack of genomic data on these Borrelia. METHODS We used metagenomic techniques to sequence almost complete genomes of novel Borrelia spp. from Varanus varius and Varanus giganteus from Australia, and used long- and short-read technologies to sequence the complete genomes of two strains of a novel Borrelia sp. previously isolated from ticks infesting Varanus salvator from Indonesia. We investigated intra- and interspecies genomic diversity, including plasmid diversity and relatedness, among Varanus-associated Borrelia and other available REP Borrelia and, based on 712 whole genome orthologues, produced the most complete phylogenetic analysis, to the best of our knowledge, of REP Borrelia to date. RESULTS The genomic architecture of Varanus-associated Borrelia spp. is similar to that of Borrelia spp. that cause relapsing fever (RF), and includes a highly conserved megaplasmid and numerous smaller linear and circular plasmids that lack structural consistency between species. Analysis of PF32 and PF57/62 plasmid partitioning genes indicated that REP Borrelia plasmids fall into at least six distinct plasmid families, some of which are related to previously defined Borrelia plasmid families, whereas the others appear to be unique. REP Borrelia contain immunogenic variable major proteins that are homologous to those found in Borrelia spp. that cause RF, although they are limited in copy number and variability and have low sequence identities to RF variable major proteins. Phylogenetic analyses based on single marker genes and 712 single copy orthologs also definitively demonstrated the monophyly of REP Borrelia as a unique lineage. CONCLUSIONS In this work we present four new genomes from three novel Borrelia, and thus double the number of REP Borrelia genomes publicly available. The genomic characterisation of these Borrelia clearly demonstrates their distinctiveness as species, and we propose the names Borrelia salvatorii, 'Candidatus Borrelia undatumii', and 'Candidatus Borrelia rubricentralis' for them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander William Gofton
- Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia
| | - Angel Popa-Baez
- Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia
| | - Ai Takano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kari Soennichsen
- Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Michelle Michie
- Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia
| | - Makenna Short
- Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia
| | - Supriyono Supriyono
- Department of Animal Diseases and Veterinary Health, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Jack Pascoe
- School of Agricultural and Ecosystem Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sue Cusbert
- School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - Robert Mulley
- School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
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Burde J, Bloch EM, Kelly JR, Krause PJ. Human Borrelia miyamotoi Infection in North America. Pathogens 2023; 12:553. [PMID: 37111439 PMCID: PMC10145171 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12040553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging pathogen that causes a febrile illness and is transmitted by the same hard-bodied (ixodid) ticks that transmit several other pathogens, including Borrelia species that cause Lyme disease. B. miyamotoi was discovered in 1994 in Ixodes persulcatus ticks in Japan. It was first reported in humans in 2011 in Russia. It has subsequently been reported in North America, Europe, and Asia. B. miyamotoi infection is widespread in Ixodes ticks in the northeastern, northern Midwestern, and far western United States and in Canada. In endemic areas, human B. miyamotoi seroprevalence averages from 1 to 3% of the population, compared with 15 to 20% for B. burgdorferi. The most common clinical manifestations of B. miyamotoi infection are fever, fatigue, headache, chills, myalgia, arthralgia, and nausea. Complications include relapsing fever and rarely, meningoencephalitis. Because clinical manifestations are nonspecific, diagnosis requires laboratory confirmation by PCR or blood smear examination. Antibiotics are effective in clearing infection and are the same as those used for Lyme disease, including doxycycline, tetracycline, erythromycin, penicillin, and ceftriaxone. Preventive measures include avoiding areas where B. miyamotoi-infected ticks are found, landscape management, and personal protective strategies such as protective clothing, use of acaricides, and tick checks with rapid removal of embedded ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jed Burde
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Evan M. Bloch
- Division of Transfusion Medicine, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21217, USA
| | - Jill R. Kelly
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Peter J. Krause
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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Analysis of variable major protein antigenic variation in the relapsing fever spirochete, Borrelia miyamotoi, in response to polyclonal antibody selection pressure. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281942. [PMID: 36827340 PMCID: PMC9955969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is a tick-transmitted spirochete that is genetically grouped with relapsing fever Borrelia and possesses multiple archived pseudogenes that encode variable major proteins (Vmps). Vmps are divided into two groups based on molecular size; variable large proteins (Vlps) and variable small proteins (Vsps). Relapsing fever Borrelia undergo Vmp gene conversion at a single expression locus to generate new serotypes by antigenic switching which is the basis for immune evasion that causes relapsing fever in patients. This study focused on B. miyamotoi vmp expression when spirochetes were subjected to antibody killing selection pressure. We incubated a low passage parent strain with mouse anti-B. miyamotoi polyclonal antiserum which killed the majority population, however, antibody-resistant reisolates were recovered. PCR analysis of the gene expression locus in the reisolates showed vsp1 was replaced by Vlp-encoded genes. Gel electrophoresis protein profiles and immunoblots of the reisolates revealed additional Vlps indicating that new serotype populations were selected by antibody pressure. Sequencing of amplicons from the expression locus of the reisolates confirmed the presence of a predominant majority serotype population with minority variants. These findings confirm previous work demonstrating gene conversion in B. miyamotoi and that multiple serotype populations expressing different vmps arise when subjected to antibody selection. The findings also provide evidence for spontaneous serotype variation emerging from culture growth in the absence of antibody pressure. Validation and determination of the type, number, and frequency of serotype variants that arise during animal infections await further investigations.
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Cleveland DW, Anderson CC, Brissette CA. Borrelia miyamotoi: A Comprehensive Review. Pathogens 2023; 12:267. [PMID: 36839539 PMCID: PMC9967256 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging tick-borne pathogen in the Northern Hemisphere and is the causative agent of Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD). Borrelia miyamotoi is vectored by the same hard-bodied ticks as Lyme disease Borrelia, yet phylogenetically groups with relapsing fever Borrelia, and thus, has been uniquely labeled a hard tick-borne relapsing fever Borrelia. Burgeoning research has uncovered new aspects of B. miyamotoi in human patients, nature, and the lab. Of particular interest are novel findings on disease pathology, prevalence, diagnostic methods, ecological maintenance, transmission, and genetic characteristics. Herein, we review recent literature on B. miyamotoi, discuss how findings adapt to current Borrelia doctrines, and briefly consider what remains unknown about B. miyamotoi.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Catherine A. Brissette
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
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Booth CE, Powell-Pierce AD, Skare JT, Garcia BL. Borrelia miyamotoi FbpA and FbpB Are Immunomodulatory Outer Surface Lipoproteins With Distinct Structures and Functions. Front Immunol 2022; 13:886733. [PMID: 35693799 PMCID: PMC9186069 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.886733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogens that traffic in the blood of their hosts must employ mechanisms to evade the host innate immune system, including the complement cascade. The Lyme disease spirochete, Borreliella burgdorferi, has evolved numerous outer membrane lipoproteins that interact directly with host proteins. Compared to Lyme disease-associated spirochetes, relatively little is known about how an emerging tick-borne spirochetal pathogen, Borrelia miyamotoi, utilizes surface lipoproteins to interact with a human host. B. burgdorferi expresses the multifunctional lipoprotein, BBK32, that inhibits the classical pathway of complement through interaction with the initiating protease C1r, and also interacts with fibronectin using a separate intrinsically disordered domain. B. miyamotoi encodes two separate bbk32 orthologs denoted fbpA and fbpB; however, the activities of these proteins are unknown. Here, we show that B. miyamotoi FbpA binds human fibronectin in a manner similar to B. burgdorferi BBK32, whereas FbpB does not. FbpA and FbpB both bind human complement C1r and protect a serum-sensitive B. burgdorferi strain from complement-mediated killing, but surprisingly, differ in their ability to recognize activated C1r versus zymogen states of C1r. To better understand the observed differences in C1r recognition and inhibition properties, high-resolution X-ray crystallography structures were solved of the C1r-binding regions of B. miyamotoi FbpA and FbpB at 1.9Å and 2.1Å, respectively. Collectively, these data suggest that FbpA and FbpB have partially overlapping functions but are functionally and structurally distinct. The data presented herein enhances our overall understanding of how bloodborne pathogens interact with fibronectin and modulate the complement system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Booth
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
| | - Alexandra D Powell-Pierce
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Jon T Skare
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Brandon L Garcia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
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Gilmore RD, Kneubehl AR, Lopez JE, Armstrong BA, Brandt KS, Van Gundy TJ. Modification of the multiplex plasmid PCR assay for Borrelia miyamotoi strain LB-2001 based on the complete genome sequence reflecting genomic rearrangements differing from strain CT13-2396. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 13:101843. [PMID: 34656944 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The genome of Borrelia spp. consists of an approximate 1 megabase chromosome and multiple linear and circular plasmids. We previously described a multiplex PCR assay to detect plasmids in the North American Borrelia miyamotoi strains LB-2001 and CT13-2396. The primer pair sets specific for each plasmid were derived from the genome sequence for B. miyamotoi strain CT13-2396, because the LB-2001 complete sequence had not been generated. The recent completion of the LB-2001 genome sequence revealed a distinct number of plasmids (n = 12) that differed from CT13-2396 (n = 14). Notable was a 97-kilobase plasmid in LB-2001, not present in CT13-2396, that appeared to be a rearrangement of the circular plasmids of strain CT13-2396. Strain LB-2001 contained two plasmids, cp30-2 and cp24, that were not annotated for strain CT13-2396. Therefore, we re-evaluated the original CT13-2396-derived multiplex PCR primer pairs and determined their location in the LB-2001 plasmids. We modified the original multiplex plasmid PCR assay for strain LB-2001 to include cp30-2 and cp24. We also determined which LB-2001 plasmids corresponded to the amplicons generated from the original CT13-2396 primer sets. These observations provide a more precise plasmid profile based on the multiplex PCR assay and reflect the complexity of gene rearrangements that occur in B. miyamotoi strains isolated from the same geographic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D Gilmore
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO United States.
| | - Alexander R Kneubehl
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Job E Lopez
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Brittany A Armstrong
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO United States
| | - Kevin S Brandt
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO United States
| | - Taylor J Van Gundy
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO United States
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Schmidt FL, Sürth V, Berg TK, Lin YP, Hovius JW, Kraiczy P. Interaction between Borrelia miyamotoi variable major proteins Vlp15/16 and Vlp18 with plasminogen and complement. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4964. [PMID: 33654183 PMCID: PMC7925540 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84533-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi, a relapsing fever spirochete transmitted by Ixodid ticks causes B. miyamotoi disease (BMD). To evade the human host´s immune response, relapsing fever borreliae, including B. miyamotoi, produce distinct variable major proteins. Here, we investigated Vsp1, Vlp15/16, and Vlp18 all of which are currently being evaluated as antigens for the serodiagnosis of BMD. Comparative analyses identified Vlp15/16 but not Vsp1 and Vlp18 as a plasminogen-interacting protein of B. miyamotoi. Furthermore, Vlp15/16 bound plasminogen in a dose-dependent fashion with high affinity. Binding of plasminogen to Vlp15/16 was significantly inhibited by the lysine analog tranexamic acid suggesting that the protein–protein interaction is mediated by lysine residues. By contrast, ionic strength did not have an effect on binding of plasminogen to Vlp15/16. Of relevance, plasminogen bound to the borrelial protein cleaved the chromogenic substrate S-2251 upon conversion by urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPa), demonstrating it retained its physiological activity. Interestingly, further analyses revealed a complement inhibitory activity of Vlp15/16 and Vlp18 on the alternative pathway by a Factor H-independent mechanism. More importantly, both borrelial proteins protect serum sensitive Borrelia garinii cells from complement-mediated lysis suggesting multiple roles of these two variable major proteins in immune evasion of B. miyamotoi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik L Schmidt
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Valerie Sürth
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Tim K Berg
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Yi-Pin Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA.,Department of Biomedical Science, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Kraiczy
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.
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Borrelia miyamotoi-An Emerging Human Tick-Borne Pathogen in Europe. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9010154. [PMID: 33445492 PMCID: PMC7827671 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is classified as a relapsing fever spirochete. Although B. miyamotoi is genetically and ecologically distinct from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, both microorganisms are transmitted by the same Ixodes tick species. B. miyamotoi was detected in I. persulcatus ticks in 1994 in Japan. A phylogenetic analysis based on selected sequences of B. miyamotoi genome revealed genetic differences between isolates from Asia, North America, and Europe, which are clearly separated into three genotypes. Symptomatic human cases of Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) were first reported in 2011 in Russia and then in North America, Europe, and Asia. The most common clinical manifestation of BMD is fever with flu-like symptoms. Several differences in rare symptoms (thrombocytopenia, monocytosis, cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis, or symptoms related to the central nervous system) have been noted among cases caused by Asian, European, and American types of B. miyamotoi. BMD should be considered in the diagnosis of patients after tick bites, particularly with meningoencephalitis, without anti-Borrelia antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid. This review describes the biology, ecology, and potential of B. miyamotoi as a tick-borne pathogen of public health concern, with particular emphasis on Europe.
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Harris EK, Brandt KS, Van Gundy TJ, Goodrich I, Wormser GP, Armstrong BA, Gilmore RD. Characterization of a Borrelia miyamotoi membrane antigen (BmaA) for serodiagnosis of Borrelia miyamotoi disease. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 11:101476. [PMID: 32723629 PMCID: PMC10956739 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is a tick-borne pathogen that causes Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD), an emerging infectious disease of increasing public health significance. B. miyamotoi is transmitted by the same tick vector (Ixodes spp.) as B. burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), the causative agent of Lyme disease, therefore laboratory assays to differentiate BMD from Lyme disease are needed to avoid misdiagnoses and for disease confirmation. We previously performed a global immunoproteomic analysis of the murine host antibody response against B. miyamotoi infection to discover antigens that could serologically distinguish the two infections. An initial assessment identified a putative lipoprotein antigen, here termed BmaA, as a promising candidate to augment current research-based serological assays. In this study, we show that BmaA is an outer surface-associated protein by its susceptibility to protease digestion. Synthesis of BmaA in culture was independent of temperature at either 23 °C or 34 °C. The BmaA gene is present in two identical loci harbored on separate plasmids in North American strains LB-2001 and CT13-2396. bmaA-like sequences are present in other B. miyamotoi strains and relapsing fever borrelia as multicopy genes and as paralogous or orthologous gene families. IgM and IgG antibodies in pooled serum from BMD patients reacted with native BmaA fractionated by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis and identified by mass spectrometry. IgG against recombinant BmaA was detected in 4 of 5 BMD patient serum samples as compared with 1 of 23 serum samples collected from patients with various stages of Lyme disease. Human anti-B. turicatae serum did not seroreact with recombinant BmaA suggesting a role as a species-specific diagnostic antigen. These results demonstrated that BmaA elicits a human host antibody response during B. miyamotoi infection but not in a tested group of B. burgdorferi-infected Lyme disease patients, thereby providing a potentially useful addition for developing BMD serodiagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma K Harris
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Kevin S Brandt
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Taylor J Van Gundy
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Irina Goodrich
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Gary P Wormser
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
| | - Brittany A Armstrong
- Department of Pediatrics, Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Robert D Gilmore
- Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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Cutler S, Vayssier-Taussat M, Estrada-Peña A, Potkonjak A, Mihalca AD, Zeller H. A new Borrelia on the block: Borrelia miyamotoi - a human health risk? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 24. [PMID: 31064634 PMCID: PMC6505184 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.18.1800170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Borrelia miyamotoi clusters phylogenetically among relapsing fever borreliae, but is transmitted by hard ticks. Recent recognition as a human pathogen has intensified research into its ecology and pathogenic potential. Aims We aimed to provide a timely critical integrative evaluation of our knowledge on B. miyamotoi, to assess its public health relevance and guide future research. Methods This narrative review used peer-reviewed literature in English from January 1994 to December 2018. Results Borrelia miyamotoi occurs in the world’s northern hemisphere where it co-circulates with B. burgdorferi sensu lato, which causes Lyme disease. The two borreliae have overlapping vertebrate and tick hosts. While ticks serve as vectors for both species, they are also reservoirs for B. miyamotoi. Three B. miyamotoi genotypes are described, but further diversity is being recognised. The lack of sufficient cultivable isolates and vertebrate models compromise investigation of human infection and its consequences. Our understanding mainly originates from limited case series. In these, human infections mostly present as influenza-like illness, with relapsing fever in sporadic cases and neurological disease reported in immunocompromised patients. Unspecific clinical presentation, also occasionally resulting from Lyme- or other co-infections, complicates diagnosis, likely contributing to under-reporting. Diagnostics mainly employ PCR and serology. Borrelia miyamotoi infections are treated with antimicrobials according to regimes used for Lyme disease. Conclusions With co-infection of tick-borne pathogens being commonplace, diagnostic improvements remain important. Developing in vivo models might allow more insight into human pathogenesis. Continued ecological and human case studies are key to better epidemiological understanding, guiding intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Cutler
- School of Health, Sport & Bioscience, University of East London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Agustín Estrada-Peña
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Aleksandar Potkonjak
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Andrei Daniel Mihalca
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Hervé Zeller
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Solna, Sweden
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13
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Janeček J, Nováková M, Oppelt J, Pospíšilová P, Cunha A, Silva AC, Dantong L, Šmajs D. Complete Chromosomal Sequences of Two Borrelia miyamotoi Samples Obtained from Ixodes ricinus Eggs in Czechia. Microbiol Resour Announc 2020; 9:e01504-19. [PMID: 32241866 PMCID: PMC7118192 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01504-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we present complete chromosome sequences of Borrelia miyamotoi samples CZ-F1E and CZ-F190E, which were obtained from Ixodes ricinus eggs from Czechia. The chromosome sequences, assembled from Illumina and Sanger sequencing data, had average coverage values of 647× and 3,216×, respectively. They belong to the European genotype, distinct from the Asian and American strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Janeček
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Nováková
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Oppelt
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Pospíšilová
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Anita Cunha
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Li Dantong
- Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - David Šmajs
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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14
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Kuleshov KV, Margos G, Fingerle V, Koetsveld J, Goptar IA, Markelov ML, Kolyasnikova NM, Sarksyan DS, Kirdyashkina NP, Shipulin GA, Hovius JW, Platonov AE. Whole genome sequencing of Borrelia miyamotoi isolate Izh-4: reference for a complex bacterial genome. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:16. [PMID: 31906865 PMCID: PMC6945570 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6388-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The genus Borrelia comprises spirochaetal bacteria maintained in natural transmission cycles by tick vectors and vertebrate reservoir hosts. The main groups are represented by a species complex including the causative agents of Lyme borreliosis and relapsing fever group Borrelia. Borrelia miyamotoi belongs to the relapsing fever group of spirochetes and forms distinct populations in North America, Asia, and Europe. As all Borrelia species B. miyamotoi possess an unusual and complex genome consisting of a linear chromosome and a number of linear and circular plasmids. The species is considered an emerging human pathogen and an increasing number of human cases are being described in the Northern hemisphere. The aim of this study was to produce a high quality reference genome that will facilitate future studies into genetic differences between different populations and the genome plasticity of B. miyamotoi. RESULTS We used multiple available sequencing methods, including Pacific Bioscience single-molecule real-time technology (SMRT) and Oxford Nanopore technology (ONT) supplemented with highly accurate Illumina sequences, to explore the suitability for whole genome assembly of the Russian B. miyamotoi isolate, Izh-4. Plasmids were typed according to their potential plasmid partitioning genes (PF32, 49, 50, 57/62). Comparing and combining results of both long-read (SMRT and ONT) and short-read methods (Illumina), we determined that the genome of the isolate Izh-4 consisted of one linear chromosome, 12 linear and two circular plasmids. Whilst the majority of plasmids had corresponding contigs in the Asian B. miyamotoi isolate FR64b, there were only four that matched plasmids of the North American isolate CT13-2396, indicating differences between B. miyamotoi populations. Several plasmids, e.g. lp41, lp29, lp23, and lp24, were found to carry variable major proteins. Amongst those were variable large proteins (Vlp) subtype Vlp-α, Vlp-γ, Vlp-δ and also Vlp-β. Phylogenetic analysis of common plasmids types showed the uniqueness in Russian/Asian isolates of B. miyamotoi compared to other isolates. CONCLUSIONS We here describe the genome of a Russian B. miyamotoi clinical isolate, providing a solid basis for future comparative genomics of B. miyamotoi isolates. This will be a great impetus for further basic, molecular and epidemiological research on this emerging tick-borne pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin V Kuleshov
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow, 111123, Russia.
- Federal State Budget Scientific Institution "Federal Scientific Center VIEV", Moscow, Russia.
| | - Gabriele Margos
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany.
| | - Volker Fingerle
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Joris Koetsveld
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Irina A Goptar
- Izmerov Research Institute of Occupational Health, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Nadezhda M Kolyasnikova
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow, 111123, Russia
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and- Biological Products of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Denis S Sarksyan
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Izhevsk State Medical Academy, Izhevsk, Russia
| | | | - German A Shipulin
- Center of Strategical Planning and Management of Biomedical Health Risks of the Ministry of Health, Moscow, Russia
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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15
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Draft Whole-Genome Sequences of Two Western European Borrelia miyamotoi Isolates. Microbiol Resour Announc 2019; 8:8/50/e01314-19. [PMID: 31831613 PMCID: PMC6908798 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01314-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the draft whole-genome sequences of two Borrelia miyamotoi strains isolated in The Netherlands. Using next-generation sequencing, we determined the complete sequence of the chromosomes and several plasmids. The two strains show a genotype typical of European strains, distinct from the genomes of strains from Asia or the United States. We report the draft whole-genome sequences of two Borrelia miyamotoi strains isolated in The Netherlands. Using next-generation sequencing, we determined the complete sequence of the chromosomes and several plasmids. The two strains show a genotype typical of European strains, distinct from the genomes of strains from Asia or the United States.
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16
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Margos G, Fingerle V, Oskam C, Stevenson B, Gofton A. Comment on: Gupta, 2019, distinction between Borrelia and Borreliella is more robustly supported by molecular and phenotypic characteristics than all other neighbouring prokaryotic genera: Response to Margos' et al. "The genus Borrelia reloaded" (PLoS One 13(12): e0208432). PLoS One 14(8):e0221397. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 11:101320. [PMID: 31722850 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Margos
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, National Reference Center for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany.
| | - Volker Fingerle
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, National Reference Center for Borrelia, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Charlotte Oskam
- Vector & Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Murdoch 6150, Australia
| | - Brian Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, and Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40502, USA
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17
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Tokarz R, Tagliafierro T, Caciula A, Mishra N, Thakkar R, Chauhan LV, Sameroff S, Delaney S, Wormser GP, Marques A, Lipkin WI. Identification of immunoreactive linear epitopes of Borrelia miyamotoi. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 11:101314. [PMID: 31636001 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging tick-borne spirochete transmitted by ixodid ticks. Current serologic assays for B. miyamotoi are impacted by genetic similarities to other Borrelia and limited understanding of optimal antigenic targets. In this study, we employed the TBD-Serochip, a peptide array platform, to identify new linear targets for serologic detection of B. miyamotoi. We examined a wide range of suspected B. miyamotoi antigens and identified 352 IgM and 91 IgG reactive peptides, with the majority mapping to variable membrane proteins. These included peptides within conserved fragments of variable membrane proteins that may have greater potential for differential diagnosis. We also identified reactive regions on FlaB, and demonstrate crossreactivity of B. burgdorferi s.l. C6 with a B. miyamotoi C6-like peptide. The panel of linear peptides identified in this study can be used to enhance serodiagnosis of B. miyamotoi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafal Tokarz
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States; Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.
| | - Teresa Tagliafierro
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Adrian Caciula
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Nischay Mishra
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States; Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Riddhi Thakkar
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Lokendra V Chauhan
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Stephen Sameroff
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Shannon Delaney
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Gary P Wormser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, United States
| | - Adriana Marques
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - W Ian Lipkin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States; Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
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18
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Schutzer SE, Body BA, Boyle J, Branson BM, Dattwyler RJ, Fikrig E, Gerald NJ, Gomes-Solecki M, Kintrup M, Ledizet M, Levin AE, Lewinski M, Liotta LA, Marques A, Mead PS, Mongodin EF, Pillai S, Rao P, Robinson WH, Roth KM, Schriefer ME, Slezak T, Snyder JL, Steere AC, Witkowski J, Wong SJ, Branda JA. Direct Diagnostic Tests for Lyme Disease. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:1052-1057. [PMID: 30307486 PMCID: PMC6399434 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi was discovered to be the cause of Lyme disease in 1983, leading to seroassays. The 1994 serodiagnostic testing guidelines predated a full understanding of key B. burgdorferi antigens and have a number of shortcomings. These serologic tests cannot distinguish active infection, past infection, or reinfection. Reliable direct-detection methods for active B. burgdorferi infection have been lacking in the past but are needed and appear achievable. New approaches have effectively been applied to other emerging infections and show promise in direct detection of B. burgdorferi infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Schutzer
- Department of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark,Correspondence: S. E. Schutzer, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, 185 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ 07103 ()
| | - Barbara A Body
- Laboratory Corporation of America, Burlington, North Carolina,Retired
| | | | | | | | - Erol Fikrig
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Noel J Gerald
- Office of In Vitro Diagnostics and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Maria Gomes-Solecki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis
| | | | | | | | | | - Lance A Liotta
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, College of Science, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia
| | - Adriana Marques
- Clinical Studies Unit, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Paul S Mead
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Emmanuel F Mongodin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Segaran Pillai
- Office of Laboratory Science and Safety, US Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Prasad Rao
- Office of In Vitro Diagnostics and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - William H Robinson
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, California
| | - Kristian M Roth
- Office of In Vitro Diagnostics and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Martin E Schriefer
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | | | | | - Allen C Steere
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
| | | | - Susan J Wong
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany
| | - John A Branda
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
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19
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Genotyping and Quantifying Lyme Pathogen Strains by Deep Sequencing of the Outer Surface Protein C ( ospC) Locus. J Clin Microbiol 2018; 56:JCM.00940-18. [PMID: 30158192 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00940-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A mixed infection of a single tick or host by Lyme disease spirochetes is common and a unique challenge for the diagnosis, treatment, and surveillance of Lyme disease. Here, we describe a novel protocol for differentiating Lyme strains on the basis of deep sequencing of the hypervariable outer surface protein C locus (ospC). Improving upon the traditional DNA-DNA hybridization method, the next-generation sequencing-based protocol is high throughput, quantitative, and able to detect new pathogen strains. We applied the method to more than one hundred infected Ixodes scapularis ticks collected from New York State, USA, in 2015 and 2016. An analysis of strain distributions within individual ticks suggests an overabundance of multiple infections by five or more strains, inhibitory interactions among coinfecting strains, and the presence of a new strain closely related to Borreliella bissettiae A supporting bioinformatics pipeline has been developed. The newly designed pair of universal ospC primers target intergenic sequences conserved among all known Lyme pathogens. The protocol could be used for culture-free identification and quantification of Lyme pathogens in wildlife and potentially in clinical specimens.
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20
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Estrada-Peña A, Álvarez-Jarreta J, Cabezas-Cruz A. Reservoir and vector evolutionary pressures shaped the adaptation of Borrelia. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 66:308-318. [PMID: 29654924 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The life cycle of spirochetes of the genus Borrelia includes complex networks of vertebrates and ticks. The tripartite association of Borrelia-vertebrate-tick has proved ecologically successful for these bacteria, which have become some of the most prominent tick-borne pathogens in the northern hemisphere. To keep evolutionary pace with its double-host life history, Borrelia must adapt to the evolutionary pressures exerted by both sets of hosts. In this review, we attempt to reconcile functional, phylogenetic, and ecological perspectives to propose a coherent scenario of Borrelia evolution. Available empirical information supports that the association of Borrelia with ticks is very old. The major split between the tick families Argasidae-Ixodidae (dated some 230-290 Mya) resulted in most relapsing fever (Rf) species being restricted to Argasidae and few associated with Ixodidae. A further key event produced the diversification of the Lyme borreliosis (Lb) species: the radiation of ticks of the genus Ixodes from the primitive stock of Ixodidae (around 217 Mya). The ecological interactions of Borrelia demonstrate that Argasidae-transmitted Rf species remain restricted to small niches of one tick species and few vertebrates. The evolutionary pressures on this group are consequently low, and speciation processes seem to be driven by geographical isolation. In contrast to Rf, Lb species circulate in nested networks of dozens of tick species and hundreds of vertebrate species. This greater variety confers a remarkably variable pool of evolutionary pressures, resulting in large speciation of the Lb group, where different species adapt to circulate through different groups of vertebrates. Available data, based on ospA and multilocus sequence typing (including eight concatenated in-house genes) phylogenetic trees, suggest that ticks could constitute a secondary bottleneck that contributes to Lb specialization. Both sets of adaptive pressures contribute to the resilience of highly adaptable meta-populations of bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jorge Álvarez-Jarreta
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz
- UMR BIPAR, INRA, ANSES, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort 94700, France; Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Center, Czech Academy of Sciences, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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21
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Koetsveld J, Kolyasnikova NM, Wagemakers A, Stukolova OA, Hoornstra D, Sarksyan DS, Toporkova MG, Henningsson AJ, Hvidsten D, Ang W, Dessau R, Platonov AE, Hovius JW. Serodiagnosis of Borrelia miyamotoi disease by measuring antibodies against GlpQ and variable major proteins. Clin Microbiol Infect 2018; 24:1338.e1-1338.e7. [PMID: 29550499 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2018.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Borrelia miyamotoi disease (BMD) is an emerging tick-borne disease in the Northern hemisphere. Serodiagnosis by measuring antibodies against glycerophosphodiester-phosphodiesterase (GlpQ) has been performed experimentally but has not been extensively clinically validated. Because we had previously shown the differential expression of antigenic variable major proteins (Vmps) in B. miyamotoi, our aim was to study antibody responses against GlpQ and Vmps in PCR-proven BMD patients and controls. METHODS We assessed seroreactivity against GlpQ and four Vmps in a well-described, longitudinal cohort of sera from BMD patients (n=182), healthy blood donors (n=136) and controls (n=68). All samples were tested by ELISA and positive sera were tested by western blot, and antibody dynamics and diagnostic value were assessed. RESULTS IgM antibodies against GlpQ and Vmps peaked between 11 and 20 days, and IgG between 21 and 50 days, after disease onset. Various combinations of GlpQ and Vmps increased sensitivity and/or specificity compared to single antigens. Notably, the GlpQ or variable large protein (Vlp)-15/16 combination yielded a sensitivity of 94.7% (95% CI: 75.4-99.7) 11-20 days after disease onset and a specificity of 96.6% (92.7-98.4) for IgM. A specificity of 100% (97.8-100) for IgM, and 98.3% for IgG (95.2-100), was found when positivity was defined as reactivity to GlpQ and any Vmp, with maximum sensitivities of 79% (56.7-91.5) for IgM and 86.7% (62.1-97.6) for IgG. CONCLUSIONS We clearly demonstrate here the diagnostic potential of these seromarkers. Our findings will facilitate future epidemiological and clinical studies on BMD and lead to the development of a serologic test to be used in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Koetsveld
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | - A Wagemakers
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - O A Stukolova
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - D Hoornstra
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D S Sarksyan
- Izhevsk State Medical Academy, Izhevsk, Udmurt Republic, Russia
| | - M G Toporkova
- Medical Association "Novaya Bolnitsa", Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - A J Henningsson
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, County Hospital Ryhov, Jönköping, Sweden
| | - D Hvidsten
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nordland Hospital, Bodø, Norway
| | - W Ang
- Dept of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R Dessau
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Slagelse Hospital, Slagelse, Denmark
| | - A E Platonov
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow, Russia
| | - J W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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22
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Whole-Genome Sequencing of Six Borrelia miyamotoi Clinical Strains Isolated in Russia. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2018; 6:6/1/e01424-17. [PMID: 29301891 PMCID: PMC5754500 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.01424-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report the whole-genome sequence of six clinical Borrelia miyamotoi isolates from the Russian Federation. Using two independent next-generation sequencing platforms, we determined the complete sequence of the chromosome and several plasmids. All strains have an Asian genotype with 99.8% chromosome nucleotide similarity with B. miyamotoi strain FR64b.
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23
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Marosevic D, Margos G, Wallich R, Wieser A, Sing A, Fingerle V. First insights in the variability of Borrelia recurrentis genomes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005865. [PMID: 28902847 PMCID: PMC5612729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Borrelia recurrentis is the causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever, endemic to the Horn of Africa. New attention was raised in Europe, with the highest number of cases (n = 45) reported among migrants in 2015 in Germany and sporadically from other European countries. So far only one genome was sequenced, hindering the development of specific molecular diagnostic and typing tools. Here we report on modified culture conditions for B. recurrentis and the intraspecies genome variability of six isolates isolated and cultured in different years in order to explore the possibility to identify new targets for typing and examine the molecular epidemiology of the pathogen. Methodology/Principal findings Two historical isolates from Ethiopia and four isolates from migrants from Somalia (n = 3) and Ethiopia (n = 1) obtained in 2015 were cultured in MPK-medium supplemented with 50% foetal calf serum. Whole DNA was sequenced using Illumina MiSeq technology and analysed using the CLC Genomics Workbench and SPAdes de novo assembler. Compared to the reference B. recurrentis A1 29–38 SNPs were identified in the genome distributed on the chromosome and plasmids. In addition to that, plasmids of differing length, compared to the available reference genome were identified. Conclusions/Significance The observed low genetic variability of B. recurrentis isolates is possibly due to the adaptation to a very conserved vector-host (louse-human) cycle, or influenced by the fastidious nature of the pathogen and their resistance to in vitro growth. Nevertheless, isolates obtained in 2015 were bearing the same chromosomal SNPs and could be distinguished from the historical isolates by means of whole genome sequencing, but not hitherto used typing methods. This is the first study examining the molecular epidemiology of B. recurrentis and provides the necessary background for the development of better diagnostic tools. Louse-borne relapsing fever, as the name suggests, is the only relapsing fever transmitted by lice, and caused by the spirochaete Borrelia recurrentis. Today it is endemic to the Horn of Africa, but due to the cosmopolitan nature of the vector, the pathogen still bears epidemic potential to spread globally among vulnerable populations. The most recent account of that has been observed among migrants arriving to Europe in 2015. Up to date, only one strain was sequenced, thus hampering the development of species-specific typing tools. We employed state-of-the-art high-throughput sequencing to six B. recurrentis isolates obtained at different time-points and currently available in culture. Our aim was to address the question of genome variability of this pathogen at the highest resolution and provide information necessary for the development of specific typing tools. B. recurrentis has highly conserved genomes, differing in 29–38 SNPs compared to the reference genome B. recurrentis A1, all identified outside the loci currently developed and used for relapsing fever Borrelia typing. Therefore, applying these typing methods would render them indistinguishable, while at the SNP level we found a distinction between isolates obtained in 2015 from migrants and the two historical isolates. Our data provide first insights in the genome variability and baseline information necessary for further studies of the molecular epidemiology of the pathogen and for the development of improved diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Durdica Marosevic
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority (LGL), Oberschleißheim, Germany
- European Programme for Public Health Microbiology Training, European Centre of Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Gabriele Margos
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority (LGL), Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Wieser
- Department of Bacteriology, Max von Pettenkofer Institute (LMU), Munich, Germany
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical Center of the University of Munich (LMU), Munich, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Sing
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority (LGL), Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Volker Fingerle
- German National Reference Centre for Borrelia, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority (LGL), Oberschleißheim, Germany
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Chromosome and Megaplasmid Sequences of Borrelia anserina (Sakharoff 1891), the Agent of Avian Spirochetosis and Type Species of the Genus. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2017; 5:5/11/e00018-17. [PMID: 28302772 PMCID: PMC5356049 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00018-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sequences of the linear chromosome and plasmids of Borrelia anserina, the cause of avian spirochetosis of poultry, revealed a smaller genome than those of other Borrelia spp. transmitted by argasid ticks. Missing or disrupted genes included a dam methylase and those in the pathway for synthesis of phospholipids from glycerol.
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Sudhindra P, Wang G, Schriefer ME, McKenna D, Zhuge J, Krause PJ, Marques AR, Wormser GP. Insights into Borrelia miyamotoi infection from an untreated case demonstrating relapsing fever, monocytosis and a positive C6 Lyme serology. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 86:93-6. [PMID: 27412815 PMCID: PMC4993640 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2016.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
We describe a patient from the United States with PCR- and serology-confirmed Borrelia miyamotoi infection who recovered without antibiotics. Our findings suggest that B. miyamotoi infection may cause relapsing fever, blood monocytosis and antibody reactivity to the C6 peptide. Further studies are required to better define the spectrum of clinical and laboratory findings for this emerging tick-transmitted infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Sudhindra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA
| | - Guiqing Wang
- Department of Pathology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA; Department of Pathology and Clinical Laboratories, Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA
| | | | - Donna McKenna
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA
| | - Jian Zhuge
- Department of Pathology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA; Department of Pathology and Clinical Laboratories, Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA
| | - Peter J Krause
- Yale School of Public Health and Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Adriana R Marques
- Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gary P Wormser
- Division of Infectious Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, 10595, USA.
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Abstract
Relapsing fever spirochetes are tick- and louse-borne pathogens that primarily afflict those in impoverished countries. Historically the pathogens have had a significant impact on public health, yet currently they are often overlooked because of the nonspecific display of disease. In this review, we discuss aspects of relapsing fever (RF) spirochete pathogenesis including the: (1) clinical manifestation of disease; (2) ability to diagnose pathogen exposure; (3) the pathogen’s life cycle in the tick and mammal; and (4) ecological factors contributing to the maintenance of RF spirochetes in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Job E. Lopez
- Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, 77030 TX, USA; (A.K.); (M.N.G.)
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, 77030 TX, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-832-824-0557
| | - Aparna Krishnavahjala
- Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, 77030 TX, USA; (A.K.); (M.N.G.)
| | - Melissa N. Garcia
- Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, 77030 TX, USA; (A.K.); (M.N.G.)
| | - Sergio Bermudez
- Departamento de Investigación en Entomología Médica, Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas de Estudios de la Salud, P.O. Box 816-02593, City of Panama, Panama;
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Cutler SJ, Ruzic-Sabljic E, Potkonjak A. Emerging borreliae - Expanding beyond Lyme borreliosis. Mol Cell Probes 2016; 31:22-27. [PMID: 27523487 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Lyme borreliosis (or Lyme disease) has become a virtual household term to the exclusion of other forgotten, emerging or re-emerging borreliae. We review current knowledge regarding these other borreliae, exploring their ecology, epidemiology and pathological potential, for example, for the newly described B. mayonii. These bacteria range from tick-borne, relapsing fever-inducing strains detected in some soft ticks, such as B. mvumii, to those from bat ticks resembling B. turicatae. Some of these emerging pathogens remain unnamed, such as the borrelial strains found in South African penguins and some African cattle ticks. Others, such as B. microti and unnamed Iranian strains, have not been recognised through a lack of discriminatory diagnostic methods. Technical improvements in phylogenetic methods have allowed the differentiation of B. merionesi from other borrelial species that co-circulate in the same region. Furthermore, we discuss members that challenge the existing dogma that Lyme disease-inducing strains are transmitted by hard ticks, whilst the relapsing fever-inducing spirochaetes are transmitted by soft ticks. Controversially, the genus has now been split with Lyme disease-associated members being transferred to Borreliella, whilst the relapsing fever species retain the Borrelia genus name. It took some 60 years for the correlation with clinical presentations now known as Lyme borreliosis to be attributed to their spirochaetal cause. Many of the borreliae discussed here are currently considered exotic curiosities, whilst others, such as B. miyamotoi, are emerging as significant causes of morbidity. To elucidate their role as potential pathogenic agents, we first need to recognise their presence through suitable diagnostic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eva Ruzic-Sabljic
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Aleksandar Potkonjak
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Chromosome and Plasmids of the Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever Agent Borrelia hermsii. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2016; 4:4/3/e00528-16. [PMID: 27284141 PMCID: PMC4901232 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00528-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The zoonotic pathogen Borrelia hermsii bears its multiple paralogous genes for variable antigens on several linear plasmids. Application of combined long-read and short-read next-generation sequencing provided complete sequences for antigen-encoding plasmids as well as other linear and circular plasmids and the linear chromosome of the genome.
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29
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Wagemakers A, Koetsveld J, Narasimhan S, Wickel M, Deponte K, Bleijlevens B, Jahfari S, Sprong H, Karan LS, Sarksyan DS, van der Poll T, Bockenstedt LK, Bins AD, Platonov AE, Fikrig E, Hovius JW. Variable Major Proteins as Targets for Specific Antibodies against Borrelia miyamotoi. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:4185-95. [PMID: 27076681 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Borrelia miyamotoi is a relapsing fever spirochete in Ixodes ticks that has been recently identified as a human pathogen causing hard tick-borne relapsing fever (HTBRF) across the Northern Hemisphere. No validated serologic test exists, and current serologic assays have low sensitivity in early HTBRF. To examine the humoral immune response against B. miyamotoi, we infected C3H/HeN mice with B. miyamotoi strain LB-2001 expressing variable small protein 1 (Vsp1) and demonstrated that spirochetemia was cleared after 3 d, coinciding with anti-Vsp1 IgM production. Clearance was also observed after passive transfer of immune sera to infected SCID mice. Next, we showed that anti-Vsp1 IgG eliminates Vsp1-expressing B. miyamotoi, selecting for spirochetes expressing a variable large protein (VlpC2) resistant to anti-Vsp1. The viability of Asian isolate B. miyamotoi HT31, expressing Vlp15/16 and Vlp18, was also unaffected by anti-Vsp1. Finally, in nine HTBRF patients, we demonstrated IgM reactivity to Vsp1 in two and against Vlp15/16 in four ∼1 wk after these patients tested positive for B. miyamotoi by PCR. Our data show that B. miyamotoi is able to express various variable major proteins (VMPs) to evade humoral immunity and that VMPs are antigenic in humans. We propose that serologic tests based on VMPs are of additional value in diagnosing HTBRF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Wagemakers
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Joris Koetsveld
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sukanya Narasimhan
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Melvin Wickel
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kathleen Deponte
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Boris Bleijlevens
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Seta Jahfari
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Hein Sprong
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Lyudmila S Karan
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology, Moscow 111123, Russia
| | | | - Tom van der Poll
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Linda K Bockenstedt
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Adriaan D Bins
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands;
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