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Watson SM, McLean DL, Balcom BJ, Birchenough SNR, Brand AM, Camprasse ECM, Claisse JT, Coolen JWP, Cresswell T, Fokkema B, Gourvenec S, Henry LA, Hewitt CL, Love MS, MacIntosh AE, Marnane M, McKinley E, Micallef S, Morgan D, Nicolette J, Ounanian K, Patterson J, Seath K, Selman AGL, Suthers IM, Todd VLG, Tung A, Macreadie PI. Offshore decommissioning horizon scan: Research priorities to support decision-making activities for oil and gas infrastructure. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 878:163015. [PMID: 36965737 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of oil and gas structures have been installed in the world's oceans over the past 70 years to meet the population's reliance on hydrocarbons. Over the last decade, there has been increased concern over how to handle decommissioning of this infrastructure when it reaches the end of its operational life. Complete or partial removal may or may not present the best option when considering potential impacts on the environment, society, technical feasibility, economy, and future asset liability. Re-purposing of offshore structures may also be a valid legal option under international maritime law where robust evidence exists to support this option. Given the complex nature of decommissioning offshore infrastructure, a global horizon scan was undertaken, eliciting input from an interdisciplinary cohort of 35 global experts to develop the top ten priority research needs to further inform decommissioning decisions and advance our understanding of their potential impacts. The highest research priorities included: (1) an assessment of impacts of contaminants and their acceptable environmental limits to reduce potential for ecological harm; (2) defining risk and acceptability thresholds in policy/governance; (3) characterising liability issues of ongoing costs and responsibility; and (4) quantification of impacts to ecosystem services. The remaining top ten priorities included: (5) quantifying ecological connectivity; (6) assessing marine life productivity; (7) determining feasibility of infrastructure re-use; (8) identification of stakeholder views and values; (9) quantification of greenhouse gas emissions; and (10) developing a transdisciplinary decommissioning decision-making process. Addressing these priorities will help inform policy development and governance frameworks to provide industry and stakeholders with a clearer path forward for offshore decommissioning. The principles and framework developed in this paper are equally applicable for informing responsible decommissioning of offshore renewable energy infrastructure, in particular wind turbines, a field that is accelerating rapidly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Watson
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
| | - Dianne L McLean
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Indian Ocean Marine Research Centre, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia; Oceans Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
| | | | - Silvana N R Birchenough
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Lowestoft NR33 0HT, United Kingdom
| | - Alison M Brand
- Manta Environmental Limited, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Elodie C M Camprasse
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
| | - Jeremy T Claisse
- California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91786, USA; Vantuna Research Group, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA 90041, USA
| | | | - Tom Cresswell
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, New Illawarra Road, Lucas Heights, New South Wales 2234, Australia
| | - Bert Fokkema
- Shell Global Solutions International B.V., 2596HR The Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Susan Gourvenec
- Centre of Excellence for Intelligent & Resilient Ocean Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK
| | - Lea-Anne Henry
- School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings Campus, James Hutton Road, EH9 3FE Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Chad L Hewitt
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia; Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - Milton S Love
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93016, USA
| | - Amy E MacIntosh
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, New Illawarra Road, Lucas Heights, New South Wales 2234, Australia; School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Michael Marnane
- Chevron Energy Technology Pty Ltd, 250 St Georges Terrace, Perth, Western Australia 6000, Australia
| | - Emma McKinley
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Shannon Micallef
- Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Australia
| | - Deborah Morgan
- Xodus Group, Xodus House, Huntly Street, Aberdeen AB10 1RS, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph Nicolette
- Montrose Environmental Solutions Inc., Northridge Road, Sandy Springs, GA 30350, USA
| | - Kristen Ounanian
- Centre for Blue Governance, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | | | - Karen Seath
- Society for Underwater Technology, International Salvage & Decommissioning Committee, UK; Karen Seath Solutions, Anstruther, Scotland, UK
| | - Allison G L Selman
- Asset Lifecycle Manager, Atteris Pty Ltd, Perth, Western Australia 6000, Australia
| | - Iain M Suthers
- School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Victoria L G Todd
- Ocean Science Consulting Ltd., Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian EH42 1RR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron Tung
- University of Aberdeen, School of Law, Aberdeen, UK; Curtin Institute for Energy Transition, Technology Park, Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia; Woodside Energy, Mia Yellagonga, 11 Mount Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000, Australia
| | - Peter I Macreadie
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
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McLean DL, Ferreira LC, Benthuysen JA, Miller KJ, Schläppy M, Ajemian MJ, Berry O, Birchenough SNR, Bond T, Boschetti F, Bull AS, Claisse JT, Condie SA, Consoli P, Coolen JWP, Elliott M, Fortune IS, Fowler AM, Gillanders BM, Harrison HB, Hart KM, Henry L, Hewitt CL, Hicks N, Hock K, Hyder K, Love M, Macreadie PI, Miller RJ, Montevecchi WA, Nishimoto MM, Page HM, Paterson DM, Pattiaratchi CB, Pecl GT, Porter JS, Reeves DB, Riginos C, Rouse S, Russell DJF, Sherman CDH, Teilmann J, Todd VLG, Treml EA, Williamson DH, Thums M. Influence of offshore oil and gas structures on seascape ecological connectivity. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2022; 28:3515-3536. [PMID: 35293658 PMCID: PMC9311298 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Offshore platforms, subsea pipelines, wells and related fixed structures supporting the oil and gas (O&G) industry are prevalent in oceans across the globe, with many approaching the end of their operational life and requiring decommissioning. Although structures can possess high ecological diversity and productivity, information on how they interact with broader ecological processes remains unclear. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the role of O&G infrastructure in maintaining, altering or enhancing ecological connectivity with natural marine habitats. There is a paucity of studies on the subject with only 33 papers specifically targeting connectivity and O&G structures, although other studies provide important related information. Evidence for O&G structures facilitating vertical and horizontal seascape connectivity exists for larvae and mobile adult invertebrates, fish and megafauna; including threatened and commercially important species. The degree to which these structures represent a beneficial or detrimental net impact remains unclear, is complex and ultimately needs more research to determine the extent to which natural connectivity networks are conserved, enhanced or disrupted. We discuss the potential impacts of different decommissioning approaches on seascape connectivity and identify, through expert elicitation, critical knowledge gaps that, if addressed, may further inform decision making for the life cycle of O&G infrastructure, with relevance for other industries (e.g. renewables). The most highly ranked critical knowledge gap was a need to understand how O&G structures modify and influence the movement patterns of mobile species and dispersal stages of sessile marine species. Understanding how different decommissioning options affect species survival and movement was also highly ranked, as was understanding the extent to which O&G structures contribute to extending species distributions by providing rest stops, foraging habitat, and stepping stones. These questions could be addressed with further dedicated studies of animal movement in relation to structures using telemetry, molecular techniques and movement models. Our review and these priority questions provide a roadmap for advancing research needed to support evidence-based decision making for decommissioning O&G infrastructure.
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Coolen JWP, Boon AR, Crooijmans R, van Pelt H, Kleissen F, Gerla D, Beermann J, Birchenough SNR, Becking LE, Luttikhuizen PC. Marine stepping-stones: Connectivity of Mytilus edulis populations between offshore energy installations. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:686-703. [PMID: 31989703 PMCID: PMC7065051 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent papers have suggested that epifaunal organisms use artificial structures as stepping-stones to spread to areas that are too distant to reach in a single generation. With thousands of artificial structures present in the North Sea, we test the hypothesis that these structures are connected by water currents and act as an interconnected reef. Population genetic structure of the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, was expected to follow a pattern predicted by a particle tracking model (PTM). Correlation between population genetic differentiation, based on microsatellite markers, and particle exchange was tested. Specimens of M. edulis were found at each location, although the PTM indicated that locations >85 km offshore were isolated from coastal subpopulations. The fixation coefficient FST correlated with the number of arrivals in the PTM. However, the number of effective migrants per generation as inferred from coalescent simulations did not show a strong correlation with the arriving particles. Isolation by distance analysis showed no increase in isolation with increasing distance and we did not find clear structure among the populations. The marine stepping-stone effect is obviously important for the distribution of M. edulis in the North Sea and it may influence ecologically comparable species in a similar way. In the absence of artificial shallow hard substrates, M. edulis would be unlikely to survive in offshore North Sea waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joop W. P. Coolen
- Wageningen Marine ResearchDen HelderThe Netherlands
- Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management GroupWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Arjen R. Boon
- Deltares, Marine and Coastal SystemsDelftThe Netherlands
| | - Richard Crooijmans
- Animal Breeding and Genomics CentreWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | | | - Frank Kleissen
- Deltares, Marine and Coastal SystemsDelftThe Netherlands
| | - Daan Gerla
- Wageningen Marine ResearchDen HelderThe Netherlands
| | - Jan Beermann
- Department of Functional EcologyAlfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine ResearchBremerhavenGermany
- Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine BiodiversityOldenburgGermany
| | | | - Leontine E. Becking
- Wageningen Marine ResearchDen HelderThe Netherlands
- Marine Animal Ecology GroupWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Pieternella C. Luttikhuizen
- Department of Coastal SystemsNIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea ResearchUtrecht UniversityDen BurgThe Netherlands
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Sommer B, Fowler AM, Macreadie PI, Palandro DA, Aziz AC, Booth DJ. Decommissioning of offshore oil and gas structures - Environmental opportunities and challenges. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 658:973-981. [PMID: 30583191 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Thousands of offshore oil and gas structures are approaching the end of their operating life globally, yet our understanding of the environmental effects of different decommissioning strategies is incomplete. Past focus on a narrow set of criteria has limited evaluation of decommissioning effects, restricting decommissioning options in most regions. We broadly review the environmental effects of decommissioning, analyse case studies, and outline analytical approaches that can advance our understanding of ecological dynamics on oil and gas structures. We find that ecosystem functions and services increase with the age of the structure and vary with geographical setting, such that decommissioning decisions need to take an ecosystem approach that considers their broader habitat and biodiversity values. Alignment of decommissioning assessment priorities among regulators and how they are evaluated, will reduce the likelihood of variable and sub-optimal decommissioning decisions. Ultimately, the range of allowable decommissioning options must be expanded to optimise the environmental outcomes of decommissioning across the broad range of ecosystems in which platforms are located.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Sommer
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Ashley M Fowler
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
| | - Peter I Macreadie
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
| | - David A Palandro
- ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, Spring, Texas, 77389, United States
| | - Azivy C Aziz
- ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, Spring, Texas, 77389, United States
| | - David J Booth
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
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5
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Denley D, Metaxas A, Fennel K. Community composition influences the population growth and ecological impact of invasive species in response to climate change. Oecologia 2019; 189:537-548. [PMID: 30604087 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-04334-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Predicting long-term impacts of introduced species is challenging, since stressors related to global change can influence species-community interactions by affecting both demographic rates of invasive species and the structure of the invaded ecosystems. Invasive species can alter ecosystem structure over time, further complicating interactions between invasive species and invaded communities in response to additional stressors. Few studies have considered how cumulative impacts of species invasion and global change on the structure of invaded ecosystems may influence persistence and population growth of introduced species. Here, we present an empirically based population model for an invasive epiphytic bryozoan that can dramatically alter the structure of its invaded kelp bed ecosystems. We use this model to predict the response of invasive species to climate change and associated changes in the invaded community. Population growth of the bryozoan increased under near-future projections of increasing ocean temperature; however, the magnitude of population growth depended on the community composition of invaded kelp beds. Our results suggest that, in some cases, indirect effects of climate change mediated through changes to the structure of the invaded habitat can modulate direct effects of climate change on invasive species, with consequences for their long-term ecological impact. Our findings have important implications for management of invasive species, as modifying invaded habitats at local to regional scales may be more logistically feasible than addressing stressors related to global climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Denley
- Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada.
| | - Anna Metaxas
- Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Katja Fennel
- Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
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6
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Ocean sprawl facilitates dispersal and connectivity of protected species. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11346. [PMID: 30115932 PMCID: PMC6095900 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29575-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly connected networks generally improve resilience in complex systems. We present a novel application of this paradigm and investigated the potential for anthropogenic structures in the ocean to enhance connectivity of a protected species threatened by human pressures and climate change. Biophysical dispersal models of a protected coral species simulated potential connectivity between oil and gas installations across the North Sea but also metapopulation outcomes for naturally occurring corals downstream. Network analyses illustrated how just a single generation of virtual larvae released from these installations could create a highly connected anthropogenic system, with larvae becoming competent to settle over a range of natural deep-sea, shelf and fjord coral ecosystems including a marine protected area. These results provide the first study showing that a system of anthropogenic structures can have international conservation significance by creating ecologically connected networks and by acting as stepping stones for cross-border interconnection to natural populations.
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7
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Viola SM, Page HM, Zaleski SF, Miller RJ, Doheny B, Dugan JE, Schroeder DM, Schroeter SC. Anthropogenic disturbance facilitates a non‐native species on offshore oil platforms. J Appl Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sloane M. Viola
- Marine Science Institute University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
| | - Henry M. Page
- Marine Science Institute University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
| | - Susan F. Zaleski
- U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Camarillo CA USA
| | - Robert J. Miller
- Marine Science Institute University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
| | - Brandon Doheny
- Marine Science Institute University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
| | - Jenifer E. Dugan
- Marine Science Institute University of California Santa Barbara CA USA
| | - Donna M. Schroeder
- U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Camarillo CA USA
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8
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Automated Image Analysis of Offshore Infrastructure Marine Biofouling. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse6010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Lamy T, Reed DC, Rassweiler A, Siegel DA, Kui L, Bell TW, Simons RD, Miller RJ. Scale-specific drivers of kelp forest communities. Oecologia 2018; 186:217-233. [PMID: 29101467 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-3994-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Identifying spatial scales of variation in natural communities and the processes driving them is critical for obtaining a predictive understanding of biodiversity. In this study, we focused on diverse communities inhabiting productive kelp forests on shallow subtidal rocky reefs in southern California, USA. We combined long-term community surveys from 86 sites with detailed environmental data to determine what structures assemblages of fishes, invertebrates and algae at multiple spatial scales. We identified the spatial scales of variation in species composition using a hierarchical analysis based on eigenfunctions, and assessed how sea surface temperature (SST), water column chlorophyll, giant kelp biomass, wave exposure and potential propagule delivery strength contributed to community variation at each scale. Spatial effects occurring at multiple scales explained 60% of the variation in fish assemblages and 52% of the variation in the assemblages of invertebrates and algae. Most variation occurred over broad spatial scales (> 200 km) consistent with spatial heterogeneity in SST and potential propagule delivery strength, while the latter also explained community variation at medium scales (65-200 km). Small scale (1-65 km) community variation was substantial but not linked to any of the measured drivers. Conclusions were consistent for both reef fishes and benthic invertebrates and algae, despite sharp differences in their adult mobility. Our results demonstrate the scale dependence of environmental drivers on kelp forest communities, showing that most species were strongly sorted along oceanographic conditions over various spatial scales. Such spatial effects must be integrated into models assessing the response of marine ecosystems to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lamy
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.
| | - Daniel C Reed
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Andrew Rassweiler
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32304, USA
| | - David A Siegel
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
- Earth Research Institute, University of California, CA, 93106, Santa Barbara, USA
- Department of Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Li Kui
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Tom W Bell
- Earth Research Institute, University of California, CA, 93106, Santa Barbara, USA
| | - Rachel D Simons
- Earth Research Institute, University of California, CA, 93106, Santa Barbara, USA
| | - Robert J Miller
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
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Higgins BA, Pearson D, Mehta RS. El Niño episodes coincide with California moray Gymnothorax mordax settlement around Santa Catalina Island, California. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 90:1570-1583. [PMID: 28138961 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The hypothesis that El Niño events influence the settlement patterns of the California moray Gymnothorax mordax is tested. The pelagic larval duration (PLD) of larval G. mordax is unknown, but studies on leptocephalus of related species suggest that larvae are long-lived, up to 2 years. Gymnothorax mordax, an elusive predatory species and the only muraenid off the coast of California, is considered abundant in the waters around Catalina Island. Thirty-three individuals were collected from Two Harbors, Catalina Island, and otoliths were taken to provide estimates of their age. Settlement year for each individual was backcalculated using estimated age from otolith measurements. These ages were then cross referenced with the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) developed by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to correlate estimated age of settlement with known El Niño years. Of the 33 individuals collected, 30 settled at Catalina Island during El Niño years. The oldest individual in the data-set was 22 years old, placing G. mordax as one of the longer-lived predatory fishes in the system. The present study represents the first account of wild G. mordax ages and suggests that El Niño events have an important role in driving the settlement of recruits towards the northern edge of their range.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Higgins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, U.S.A
| | - D Pearson
- National Marine Fisheries Southwest Fisheries Science Center - Fisheries Ecology Division, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, U.S.A
| | - R S Mehta
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, U.S.A
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