1
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Stockland EL, Smith MS, Pickett AT, Cooke RF, Poole RK. Influence of differing levels of concentrate on circulating cytokine concentrations in beef heifers. Transl Anim Sci 2024; 8:txae089. [PMID: 38873027 PMCID: PMC11170485 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txae089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Components of the immune system (e.g., cytokines and chemokines) can influence reproductive efficiency. Characterizing the influence nutrition has on shifts in circulating cytokine concentrations will allow for a better understanding of reproductive efficiency in beef cattle. This study aimed to determine the effect of diet composition on circulating cytokine concentrations of beef heifers. Using a 3 × 3 Latin square design, pubertal Bos taurus-influenced rumen-cannulated heifers (n = 15) were fed a diet based on different concentrate percentages. The treatment period consisted of 28-d feeding periods with a washout interval of 21 d. Treatment groups were fed 100% grass hay (high forage; HF), 60% grass hay with 40% corn-based concentrate (intermediate; INT), and 25% grass hay with 75% corn-based concentrate (high grain; HG). Heifers were offered 2% of their body weight in feed daily. Blood was collected on days 0 and 28 of the treatment period for cytokine analysis. Plasma cytokine concentrations were quantified using RayBiotech Quantibody Bovine Cytokine Array Q1 kit according to manufacturer instructions. Concentrations of interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP10) linearly decreased with an increased concentrate diet (P = 0.037). Concentrations of IP10 differed for heifers consuming HF diet vs. HG diet (3,069.52 vs. 1,001.84 ± 669.01 pg/mL, respectively) and heifers consuming INT diet vs. HG diet (2,886.77 vs. 1,001.84 ± 669.01 pg/mL, respectively); however, there were no significant differences in IP10 concentrations between HF and INT heifers. There was a tendency for interleukin-1 family member 5 (IL1F5) concentrations to be lower for heifers consuming the HG diet compared to INT diet (P = 0.08). Results suggest that heifers consuming a high-concentrate diet have lower concentrations of IP10 and IL1F5. Additional research is necessary to better understand the dietary influence on the immune system in developing heifers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Stockland
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Molly S Smith
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Autumn T Pickett
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Reinaldo F Cooke
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Rebecca K Poole
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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2
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Khalid H, Pierneef L, van Hooij A, Zhou Z, de Jong D, Tjon Kon Fat E, Connelley TK, Hope JC, Corstjens PLAM, Geluk A. Development of lateral flow assays to detect host proteins in cattle for improved diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1193332. [PMID: 37655261 PMCID: PMC10465798 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1193332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection in cattle, is an economically devastating chronic disease for livestock worldwide. Efficient disease control measures rely on early and accurate diagnosis using the tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs), followed by culling of positive animals. Compromised performance of TST and IGRA, due to BCG vaccination or co-infections with non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), urges improved diagnostics. Lateral flow assays (LFAs) utilizing luminescent upconverting reporter particles (UCP) for quantitative measurement of host biomarkers present an accurate but less equipment- and labor-demanding diagnostic test platform. UCP-LFAs have proven applications for human infectious diseases. Here, we report the development of UCP-LFAs for the detection of six bovine proteins (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, CCL4, CXCL9, and CXCL10), which have been described by ELISA as potential biomarkers to discriminate M. bovis infected from naïve and BCG-vaccinated cattle. We show that, in line with the ELISA data, the combined PPDb-induced levels of IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, CCL4, and CXCL9 determined by UCP-LFAs can discriminate M. bovis challenged animals from naïve (AUC range: 0.87-1.00) and BCG-vaccinated animals (AUC range: 0.97-1.00) in this cohort. These initial findings can be used to develop a robust and user-friendly multi-biomarker test (MBT) for bTB diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamza Khalid
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Division of Immunology, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
- Center for Inflammation Research, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Pierneef
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Anouk van Hooij
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Zijie Zhou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Danielle de Jong
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Elisa Tjon Kon Fat
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Timothy K. Connelley
- Division of Immunology, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Jayne C. Hope
- Division of Immunology, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Paul L. A. M. Corstjens
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Annemieke Geluk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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3
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Cooke DM, Goosen WJ, Burgess T, Witte C, Miller MA. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex detection in rural goat herds in South Africa using Bayesian latent class analysis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2023; 257:110559. [PMID: 36739737 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2023.110559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Animal tuberculosis affects a wide range of domestic and wild animal species, including goats (Capra hircus). In South Africa, Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) testing and surveillance in domestic goats is not widely applied, potentially leading to under recognition of goats as a potential source of M. bovis spread to cattle as well as humans and wildlife. The aim of this study was to estimate diagnostic test performance for four assays and determine whether M. bovis infection was present in goats sharing communal pastures with M. bovis positive cattle in the Umkhanyakude district of Northern Zululand, KwaZulu Natal. In 2019, 137 M. bovis-exposed goats were screened for MTBC infection with four diagnostic tests: the in vivo single intradermal comparative cervical tuberculin test (SICCT), in vitro QuantiFERON®-TB Gold (QFT) bovine interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA), QFT bovine interferon gamma induced protein 10 (IP-10) release assay (IPRA), and nasal swabs tested with the Cepheid GeneXpert® MTB/RIF Ultra (GXU) assay for detection of MTBC DNA. A Bayesian latent class analysis was used to estimate MTBC prevalence and diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity. Among the 137 M. bovis-exposed goats, positive test results were identified in 15/136 (11.0%) goats by the SICCT; 4/128 (3.1%) goats by the IPRA; 2/128 (1.6%) goats by the IGRA; and 26/134 (19.4%) nasal swabs by the GXU. True prevalence was estimated by our model to be 1.1%, suggesting that goats in these communal herds are infected with MTBC at a low level. Estimated posterior means across the four evaluated assays ranged from 62.7% to 80.9% for diagnostic sensitivity and from 82.9% to 97.9% for diagnostic specificity, albeit estimates of the former (diagnostic sensitivity) were dependent on model assumptions. The application of a Bayesian latent class analysis and multiple ante-mortem test results may improve detection of MTBC, especially when prevalence is low. Our results provide a foundation for further investigation to confirm infection in communal goat herds and identify previously unrecognized sources of intra- and inter-species transmission of MTBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah M Cooke
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research 8000, South Africa; DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, PO Box 241, Cape Town 8000, South Africa.
| | - Wynand J Goosen
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research 8000, South Africa; DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, PO Box 241, Cape Town 8000, South Africa.
| | - Tristan Burgess
- Center for Wildlife Studies, P.O. Box 56 South Freeport, ME 04078, USA.
| | - Carmel Witte
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research 8000, South Africa; DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, PO Box 241, Cape Town 8000, South Africa; Center for Wildlife Studies, P.O. Box 56 South Freeport, ME 04078, USA.
| | - Michele A Miller
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research 8000, South Africa; DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, PO Box 241, Cape Town 8000, South Africa.
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4
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Pooley HB, Panag G, Plain KM, de Silva K, Begg DJ, Whittington RJ, Purdie AC. IP10 is a predictor of successful vaccine protection against paratuberculosis infection in sheep. Vaccine 2023; 41:274-283. [PMID: 36456390 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The cell mediated immune response and ability of immune cells to migrate to the site of infection are both key aspects of protection against many pathogens. Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is an intracellular pathogen and the causative agent of paratuberculosis, a chronic wasting disease of ruminants. Current commercial vaccines for paratuberculosis reduce the occurrence of clinical disease but not all animals are protected from infection. Therefore, there is a need to understand the immune responses triggered by these vaccines at the site of infection, in circulating immune cells and their relationships to vaccine-mediated protection. The magnitude and location of gene expression related to the cell mediated immune response and cellular migration were studied in the ileum of sheep. In addition, longitudinal IP10 (also known as IP10) secretion by circulating immune cells was examined in the same sheep. Animals were grouped based on vaccination status (vaccinated vs non-vaccinated) and MAP exposure (experimentally exposed vs unexposed). Vaccination of unexposed sheep increased the expression of IP10, CCL5 and COR1c. Sheep that were successfully protected by vaccination (uninfected following experimental exposure) had significantly reduced expression of IP10 in the ileum at 12 months post exposure compared to vaccine non-responders (those that became infected) and non-vaccinated infected sheep. Successfully protected sheep also had significantly increased secretion of IP10 in in vitro stimulated immune cells from whole blood compared to vaccine non responders at 4 months post exposure. Therefore, the IP10 recall response has the potential to be used as marker for infection status in vaccinated sheep and could be a biomarker for a DIVA test in sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah B Pooley
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia.
| | - Guneet Panag
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Karren M Plain
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Kumudika de Silva
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Douglas J Begg
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard J Whittington
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Auriol C Purdie
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
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5
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Ortega J, de Juan L, Sevilla IA, Garrido JM, Roy Á, Velasco C, Romero B, Domínguez M, Pérez de Val B, Nebot C, Sáez-Llorente JL, Álvarez J, Bezos J. Effect of a recent parenteral dexamethasone and ketoprofen administration on the immunological diagnosis of tuberculosis in goats. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1042428. [DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1042428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Caprine tuberculosis (TB) is a zoonosis caused by members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). Caprine TB eradication programmes are based mainly on intradermal tuberculin tests and slaughterhouse surveillance. Different factors may affect the performance of the TB diagnostic tests used in caprine herds and, therefore, their ability to detect infected animals. The present study evaluates the effect of the fraudulent administration of two anti-inflammatory substances, dexamethasone and ketoprofen, on the performance of the TB diagnostic techniques used in goats, as well as the suitability of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for their detection in hair samples. The animals (n = 90) were distributed in three groups: (1) a group treated with dexamethasone (n = 30); a second group treated with ketoprofen (n = 30); and a third non-treated control group (n = 30). Both dexamethasone and ketoprofen groups were subjected to intramuscular inoculation with the substances 48 h after the administration of bovine and avian purified protein derivatives (PPDs), that is, 24 h before the tests were interpreted. All the animals were subjected to the single and comparative intradermal tuberculin (SIT and CIT, respectively) tests, interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) and P22 ELISA. The number of SIT test reactors was significantly lower in the dexamethasone (p = 0.001) and ketoprofen (p < 0.001) groups 72 h after the bovine PPD inoculation compared with the control group. A significantly higher number of positive reactors to IGRA was detected within the dexamethasone group (p = 0.016) 72 h after PPD administration compared to the control group. Dexamethasone and ketoprofen detection in either hair or serum samples was challenging when using HPLC since these substances were not detected in animals whose skin fold thickness (SFT) was reduced, what could be an issue if they are used for fraudulent purposes. In conclusion, the parenteral administration of dexamethasone or ketoprofen 48 h after the PPDs administration can significantly reduce the increase in SFT (mm) and subsequently the number of positive reactors to SIT test.
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Correia CN, McHugo GP, Browne JA, McLoughlin KE, Nalpas NC, Magee DA, Whelan AO, Villarreal-Ramos B, Vordermeier HM, Gormley E, Gordon SV, MacHugh DE. High-resolution transcriptomics of bovine purified protein derivative-stimulated peripheral blood from cattle infected with Mycobacterium bovis across an experimental time course. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2022; 136:102235. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2022.102235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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7
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Khalid H, van Hooij A, Connelley TK, Geluk A, Hope JC. Protein Levels of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines as Biomarkers of Mycobacterium bovis Infection and BCG Vaccination in Cattle. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11070738. [PMID: 35889984 PMCID: PMC9320177 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11070738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis, is a globally prevalent infectious disease with significant animal welfare and economic impact. Difficulties in implementing test-and-slaughter measures in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and the underperformance of the current diagnostics establish a clear need to develop improved diagnostics. Adaptive immunity biomarkers other than IFNγ could be useful as suggested by various gene expression studies; however, a comprehensive assessment at the protein level is lacking. Here, we screened a range of chemokines and cytokines for their potential as biomarkers in samples from M. bovis experimentally challenged or naive animals. Although serum concentrations for most proteins were low, the pro-inflammatory markers, IL-2, CXCL-9, IP-10 and CCL4, in addition to IFNγ, were found to be significantly elevated in bovine tuberculin (PPDb)-stimulated whole blood supernatants. Further assessment of these molecules in BCG-vaccinated with or without subsequent M. bovis challenge or naive animals revealed that PPDb-specific IL-2 and IP-10, in addition to IFNγ, could discriminate naive and BCG-vaccinated from M. bovis challenged animals. Moreover, these proteins, along with CCL4, showed DIVA potential, i.e., enabling differentiation of M. bovis-infected animals from BCG-vaccinated animals. Combined analysis of cytokines and chemokines could also accurately identify M. bovis infection with strong correlations observed between PPDb-specific IFNγ, IL-2 and IP-10 levels. This provides proof of concept for utilizing multiple biomarker signatures for discrimination of animals with respect to M. bovis infection or BCG vaccination status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamza Khalid
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK;
- Center for Inflammation Research, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (J.C.H.)
| | - Anouk van Hooij
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands; (A.v.H.); (A.G.)
| | - Timothy K. Connelley
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK;
| | - Annemieke Geluk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands; (A.v.H.); (A.G.)
| | - Jayne C. Hope
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, UK;
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (J.C.H.)
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8
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Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis (M. bovis), is an important enzootic disease affecting mainly cattle, worldwide. Despite the implementation of national campaigns to eliminate the disease, bovine tuberculosis remains recalcitrant to eradication in several countries. Characterizing the host response to M. bovis infection is crucial for understanding the immunopathogenesis of the disease and for developing better control strategies. To profile the host responses to M. bovis infection, we analyzed the transcriptome of whole blood cells collected from experimentally infected calves with a virulent strain of M. bovis using RNA transcriptome sequencing (RNAseq). Comparative analysis of calf transcriptomes at early (8 weeks) vs. late (20 weeks) aerosol infection with M. bovis revealed divergent and unique profile for each stage of infection. Notably, at the early time point, transcriptional upregulation was observed among several of the top-ranking canonical pathways involved in T-cell chemotaxis. At the late time point, enrichment in the cell mediated cytotoxicity (e.g. Granzyme B) was the predominant host response. These results showed significant change in bovine transcriptional profiles and identified networks of chemokine receptors and monocyte chemoattractant protein (CCL) co-regulated genes that underline the host-mycobacterial interactions during progression of bovine tuberculosis in cattle. Further analysis of the transcriptomic profiles identified potential biomarker targets for early and late phases of tuberculosis in cattle. Overall, the identified profiles better characterized identified novel immunomodulatory mechanisms and provided a list of targets for further development of potential diagnostics for tuberculosis in cattle.
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Patterson SJ, Clarke C, Clutton-Brock TH, Miller MA, Parsons SDC, Pfeiffer DU, Vergne T, Drewe JA. Combining Analytical Approaches and Multiple Sources of Information to Improve Interpretation of Diagnostic Test Results for Tuberculosis in Wild Meerkats. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3453. [PMID: 34944230 PMCID: PMC8698085 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnostic tests are used to classify individual animals' infection statuses. However, validating test performance in wild animals without gold standard tests is extremely challenging, and the issue is further complicated in chronic conditions where measured immune parameters vary over time. Here, we demonstrate the value of combining evidence from different diagnostic approaches to aid interpretation in the absence of gold standards, large sample sizes, and controlled environments. Over a two-year period, we sampled 268 free-living meerkats (Suricata suricatta) longitudinally for Mycobacterium suricattae (a causative agent of tuberculosis), using three ante-mortem diagnostic tests based on mycobacterial culture, and antigen-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, interpreting results both independently and in combination. Post-mortem cultures confirmed M. suricattae infection in 22 animals, which had prior ante-mortem information, 59% (13/22) of which were test-positive on a parallel test interpretation (PTI) of the three ante-mortem diagnostic assays (95% confidence interval: 37-79%). A similar ability to detect infection, 65.7% (95% credible interval: 42.7-84.7%), was estimated using a Bayesian approach to examine PTI. Strong evidence was found for a near doubling of the hazard of death (Hazard Ratio 1.75, CI: 1.14-2.67, p = 0.01), associated with a positive PTI result, thus demonstrating that these test results are related to disease outcomes. For individual tests, small sample sizes led to wide confidence intervals, but replication of conclusions, using different methods, increased our confidence in these results. This study demonstrates that combining multiple methodologies to evaluate diagnostic tests in free-ranging wildlife populations can be a useful approach for exploiting such valuable datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart J. Patterson
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (D.U.P.); (J.A.D.)
| | - Charlene Clarke
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research, DSI/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa; (C.C.); (M.A.M.); (S.D.C.P.)
| | - Tim H. Clutton-Brock
- Large Animal Research Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK;
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Michele A. Miller
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research, DSI/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa; (C.C.); (M.A.M.); (S.D.C.P.)
| | - Sven D. C. Parsons
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research, DSI/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 8000, South Africa; (C.C.); (M.A.M.); (S.D.C.P.)
| | - Dirk U. Pfeiffer
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (D.U.P.); (J.A.D.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Timothée Vergne
- UMR ENVT-INRAE IHAP, National Veterinary School of Toulouse, 31300 Toulous, France;
| | - Julian A. Drewe
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (D.U.P.); (J.A.D.)
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Alvarez AH. Revisiting tuberculosis screening: An insight to complementary diagnosis and prospective molecular approaches for the recognition of the dormant TB infection in human and cattle hosts. Microbiol Res 2021; 252:126853. [PMID: 34536677 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2021.126853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is defined as a chronic infection in both human and cattle hosts and many subclinical cases remain undetected. After the pathogen is inhaled by a host, phagocyted bacilli can persist inside macrophages surviving intracellularly. Hosts develop granulomatous lesions in the lungs or lymph nodes, limiting infection. However, bacilli become persister cells. Immunological diagnosis of TB is performed basically by routine tuberculin skin test (TST), and in some cases, by ancillary interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA). The concept of human latent TB infection (LTBI) by M. tuberculosis is recognized in cohorts without symptoms by routine clinical diagnostic tests, and nowadays IGRA tests are used to confirm LTBI with either active or latent specific antigens of M. tuberculosis. On the other hand, dormant infection in cattle by M. bovis has not been described by TST or IGRA testing as complications occur by cross-reactive immune responses to homolog antigens of environmental mycobacteria or a false-negative test by anergic states of a wained bovine immunity, evidencing the need for deciphering more specific biomarkers by new-generation platforms of analysis for detection of M. bovis dormant infection. The study and description of bovine latent TB infection (boLTBI) would permit the recognition of hidden animal infection with an increase in the sensitivity of routine tests for an accurate estimation of infected dairy cattle. Evidence of immunological and experimental analysis of LTBI should be taken into account to improve the study and the description of the still neglected boLTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel H Alvarez
- Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. (CIATEJ), Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Av. Normalistas 800 C.P. 44270, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico.
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11
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Smith K, Kleynhans L, Warren RM, Goosen WJ, Miller MA. Cell-Mediated Immunological Biomarkers and Their Diagnostic Application in Livestock and Wildlife Infected With Mycobacterium bovis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:639605. [PMID: 33746980 PMCID: PMC7969648 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.639605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium bovis has the largest host range of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and infects domestic animal species, wildlife, and humans. The presence of global wildlife maintenance hosts complicates bovine tuberculosis (bTB) control efforts and further threatens livestock and wildlife-related industries. Thus, it is imperative that early and accurate detection of M. bovis in all affected animal species is achieved. Further, an improved understanding of the complex species-specific host immune responses to M. bovis could enable the development of diagnostic tests that not only identify infected animals but distinguish between infection and active disease. The primary bTB screening standard worldwide remains the tuberculin skin test (TST) that presents several test performance and logistical limitations. Hence additional tests are used, most commonly an interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) release assay (IGRA) that, similar to the TST, measures a cell-mediated immune (CMI) response to M. bovis. There are various cytokines and chemokines, in addition to IFN-γ, involved in the CMI component of host adaptive immunity. Due to the dominance of CMI-based responses to mycobacterial infection, cytokine and chemokine biomarkers have become a focus for diagnostic tests in livestock and wildlife. Therefore, this review describes the current understanding of host immune responses to M. bovis as it pertains to the development of diagnostic tools using CMI-based biomarkers in both gene expression and protein release assays, and their limitations. Although the study of CMI biomarkers has advanced fundamental understanding of the complex host-M. bovis interplay and bTB progression, resulting in development of several promising diagnostic assays, most of this research remains limited to cattle. Considering differences in host susceptibility, transmission and immune responses, and the wide variety of M. bovis-affected animal species, knowledge gaps continue to pose some of the biggest challenges to the improvement of M. bovis and bTB diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Smith
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Léanie Kleynhans
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robin M Warren
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Wynand J Goosen
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Michele A Miller
- Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
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12
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Abstract
Mycobacterial infections are widely distributed in animals and cause considerable economic losses, especially in livestock animals. Bovine paratuberculosis and bovine tuberculosis, which are representative mycobacterial infections in cattle, are difficult to diagnose using current-generation diagnostics due to their relatively long incubation periods. Thus, alternative diagnostic tools are needed for the detection of mycobacterial infections in cattle. A biomarker is an indicator present in biological fluids that reflects the biological state of an individual during the progression of a specific disease. Therefore, biomarkers are considered a potential diagnostic tool for various diseases. Recently, the number of studies investigating biomarkers as tools for diagnosing mycobacterial infections has increased. In human medicine, many diagnostic biomarkers have been developed and applied in clinical practice. In veterinary medicine, however, many such developments are still in the early stages. In this review, we summarize the current progress in biomarker research related to the development of diagnostic biomarkers for mycobacterial infections in cattle.
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13
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Cytokine biomarker discovery in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 232:110168. [PMID: 33373875 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection, disrupts conservation programs of threatened species such as the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Interferon gamma release assays have been developed for the diagnosis of M. bovis infection in rhinoceros, however, the discovery of additional diagnostic biomarkers might improve the accuracy of case detection. The aim of this pilot study was therefore to evaluate a novel unbiased approach to candidate biomarker discovery and preliminary validation. Whole blood samples from twelve white rhinoceros were incubated in Nil and TB antigen tubes of the QuantiFERON® TB Gold (In-Tube) system after which RNA was extracted and reverse transcribed. Using the equine RT2 profiler PCR array, relative gene expression analysis of samples from two immune sensitized rhinoceros identified CCL4, CCL8, IL23A, LTA, NODAL, TNF, CSF3, CXCL10 and GPI as upregulated in response to antigen stimulation. Novel gene expression assays (GEAs) were designed for selected candidates, i.e. CCL4, CXCL10 and IFNG, and analysis of QFT-processed samples showed the CXCL10 GEA could distinguish between five M. bovis-infected and five uninfected rhinoceros. These findings confirm the value of the equine RT2 profiler PCR array as a useful tool for screening biomarkers for the diagnosis of M. bovis infection in rhinoceros.
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14
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Smith K, Kleynhans L, Snyders C, Bernitz N, Cooper D, van Helden P, Warren RM, Miller MA, Goosen WJ. Use of the MILLIPLEX ® bovine cytokine/chemokine multiplex assay to identify Mycobacterium bovis-infection biomarkers in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020; 231:110152. [PMID: 33227620 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
As a recognized Mycobacterium bovis maintenance host, the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) poses transmission risks to livestock, humans and other wildlife. Early detection of M. bovis infection is critical for limiting its spread. Currently, tests detecting cell-mediated immune responses are used for diagnosis in buffaloes. However, these may have suboptimal sensitivity or specificity, depending on the blood stimulation method. Recent evidence suggests that assays using combinations of host cytokine biomarkers may increase diagnostic performance. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the application of a MILLIPLEX® bovine cytokine/chemokine multiplex assay to identify candidate biomarkers of M. bovis infection in buffaloes. Whole blood from twelve culture-confirmed M. bovis-infected buffaloes, stimulated with the QuantiFERON® TB Gold Plus in-tube system, was tested using the MILLIPLEX® platform. Results indicated binding of bovine antibodies to fifteen buffalo cytokine/chemokine targets. Moreover, there was a significant difference in concentrations between unstimulated and TB antigen-stimulated buffalo samples for seven cytokines/chemokines included in the kit. Although these preliminary results require further investigation in larger sample sets and a comparison between M. bovis-infected and uninfected cohorts, the utility of the MILLIPLEX® platform in a novel species was demonstrated, in addition to identifying potential African buffalo cytokines for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Smith
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Léanie Kleynhans
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Candice Snyders
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Netanya Bernitz
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - David Cooper
- Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, PO Box 25, Mtubatuba 3935, South Africa
| | - Paul van Helden
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robin M Warren
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Michele A Miller
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Wynand J Goosen
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
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15
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Abstract
Paratuberculosis and bovine tuberculosis are two mycobacterial diseases of ruminants which have a considerable impact on livestock health, welfare, and production. These are chronic "iceberg" diseases which take years to manifest and in which many subclinical cases remain undetected. Suggested biomarkers to detect infected or diseased animals are numerous and include cytokines, peptides, and expression of specific genes; however, these do not provide a strong correlation to disease. Despite these advances, disease detection still relies heavily on dated methods such as detection of pathogen shedding, skin tests, or serology. Here we review the evidence for suitable biomarkers and their mechanisms of action, with a focus on identifying animals that are resilient to disease. A better understanding of these factors will help establish new strategies to control the spread of these diseases.
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16
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Palmer MV, Thacker TC, Rabideau MM, Jones GJ, Kanipe C, Vordermeier HM, Ray Waters W. Biomarkers of cell-mediated immunity to bovine tuberculosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2019; 220:109988. [PMID: 31846797 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2019.109988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Whole blood based assays, particularly interferon gamma (IFN-γ) release assays (IGRAs), are used for the diagnosis of both bovine and human tuberculosis (TB). The aim of the current study was to evaluate a panel of cytokines and chemokines for potential use as diagnostic readouts indicative of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection in cattle. A gene expression assay was used to determine the kinetics of the response to M. bovis purified protein derivative and a fusion protein consisting of ESAT-6, CFP10, and Rv3615c upon aerosol infection with ∼104 cfu of M. bovis. The panel of biomarkers included: IFN-γ, CXCL9, CXCL10, CCL2, CCL3, TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-1Ra, IL-22, IL-21 and IL-13. Protein levels of IFN-γ, CXCL9, and CXCL10 were determined by ELISA. Findings suggest that CXCL9, CXCL10, IL-21, IL-13, and several acute phase cytokines may be worth pursuing as diagnostic biomarkers of M. bovis infection in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell V Palmer
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, Iowa, USA.
| | - Tyler C Thacker
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Meaghan M Rabideau
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Gareth J Jones
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surry UK
| | - Carly Kanipe
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, Iowa, USA; Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - H Martin Vordermeier
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surry UK
| | - W Ray Waters
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Ames, Iowa, USA
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17
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Interleukin 8 and Pentaxin (C-Reactive Protein) as Potential New Biomarkers of Bovine Tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 2019; 57:JCM.00274-19. [PMID: 31340991 PMCID: PMC6760949 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00274-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. During the early stage of infection, greater than 15% of M. bovis-infected cattle shed mycobacteria through nasal secretions, which can be detected by nested PCR. Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. During the early stage of infection, greater than 15% of M. bovis-infected cattle shed mycobacteria through nasal secretions, which can be detected by nested PCR. To compare the differences in the protein profiles of M. bovis-infected cattle that were nested PCR positive (bTBPCR-P) and M. bovis-infected cattle that were nested PCR negative (bTBPCR-N) and to screen for biomarkers that will facilitate the early and accurate detection of bTB, we investigated the protein expression profiles of serum and bovine purified protein derivative (PPD-B)-stimulated plasma among bTBPCR-P (n = 20), bTBPCR-N (n = 20), and uninfected cattle (NC; n = 20) by iTRAQ labeling coupled with two-dimensional liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (iTRAQ-2D LC-MS/MS). After comprehensive analysis, we selected 15 putative differentially expressed serum proteins and 15 plasma proteins for validation by parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) with the same cohort used in the iTRAQ analysis. Four serum and five PPD-B-stimulated proteins were confirmed in follow-up enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. PPD-B-stimulated interleukin 8 (IL-8) displayed the potential to differentiate M. bovis-infected cattle from NC, with an area under the curve (AUC) value of 0.9662, while PPD-B-stimulated C-reactive protein (CRP) displayed the potential to differentiate bTBPCR-P from bTBPCR-N, with an AUC value of 1.00. Finally, double-blind testing with 244 cattle indicated that the PPD-B-stimulated IL-8 test exhibited good agreement with traditional tests (κ > 0.877) with a >90% relative sensitivity and a >98% relative specificity; the PPD-B-stimulated CRP test displayed good agreement with nested PCR (κ = 0.9117), with an observed 94% relative sensitivity and 97% relative specificity. Therefore, the PPD-B-stimulated IL-8 and CRP tests could be used to detect bTB and to differentiate bTBPCR-P from bTBPCR-N.
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18
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Min F, Wang J, Huang S, Pan J, Zhang L. In vitro responses of multiple cytokines to purified protein derivative in healthy and naturally Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). J Med Primatol 2019; 48:329-337. [PMID: 31478213 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As the widely used biomarker of whole-blood stimulation assays for tuberculosis diagnosis, the release of IFN-γ might be affected by multiple factors, such as immunosuppression and some infectious agents. Here, we evaluated additional cytokines as diagnostic biomarkers. METHODS Forty-three cytokines were measured by Luminex xMAP technologies in 30 healthy and 10 naturally Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)-infected rhesus monkeys pre- and post-stimulation by purified protein derivative (PPD). RESULTS After stimulation, production of 23 and 38 cytokines was markedly increased in healthy and MTB-infected macaques, respectively. A comparison of the stimulation index (SI) between MTB infections and healthy macaques showed that the SIs of 32 cytokines in MTB-infected macaques were significantly higher than those in healthy macaques. Pooling the results, eight cytokines were suggested as ideal biomarkers for a whole-blood stimulation assay for MTB diagnosis. CONCLUSION PPD could induce multiple cytokine responses in either healthy or MTB-infected monkeys, and eight cytokines had reliable predictive capacity as diagnostic biomarkers of MTB infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangui Min
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuwu Huang
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinchun Pan
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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19
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Impact of Mycobacterium bovis-induced pathology on interpretation of QuantiFERON®-TB Gold assay results in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2019; 217:109923. [PMID: 31470250 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2019.109923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The cytokine interferon gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) is a sensitive biomarker of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). However, elevated levels of IP-10 in QuantiFERON®-TB Gold (QFT) unstimulated whole blood compromises the utility of this biomarker. In this study, IP-10 and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) concentrations in whole blood samples from M. bovis culture-confirmed buffaloes with varying degrees of pathological changes (n = 72) and uninfected controls (n = 70) were measured in the IP-10 release assay (IPRA) and IFN-γ release assay (IGRA), respectively. Findings suggest that concentrations of both cytokines in QFT Nil tubes were higher in infected buffaloes with macroscopic pathological changes consistent with bovine tuberculosis compared to uninfected controls, and IGRA values increased with more severe pathological changes in infected buffaloes (p < 0.05). Finally, in culture-confirmed buffaloes with IPRA-negative and IGRA-positive test results, most animals were also those with the most advanced pathology. We conclude that IP-10 and IFN-γ concentrations measured in QFT Nil tubes may provide insight into the presence of M. bovis pathology in infected buffaloes. Furthermore, this study highlights the value in evaluating cytokine production in both antigen-stimulated and unstimulated samples when interpreting cytokine release assay results.
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20
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Bernitz N, Kerr TJ, Goosen WJ, Clarke C, Higgitt R, Roos EO, Cooper DV, Warren RM, van Helden PD, Parsons SDC, Miller MA. Parallel measurement of IFN-γ and IP-10 in QuantiFERON®-TB Gold (QFT) plasma improves the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). Prev Vet Med 2019; 169:104700. [PMID: 31311648 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.104700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The QuantiFERON®-TB Gold (QFT) stimulation platform for cytokine release is a novel approach for diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis in wildlife species. Plasma interferon gamma (IFN-γ) is routinely measured to detect immune sensitization to Mycobacterium bovis. However, the cytokine interferon gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) has been proposed as an alternative, more sensitive, diagnostic biomarker. In this study, we investigated the use of the QFT system with measurement of IFN-γ and IP-10 in parallel to identify M. bovis-infected African buffaloes. The test results of either biomarker in a cohort of M. bovis-unexposed buffaloes (n = 70) led to calculation of 100% test specificity. Furthermore, in cohorts of M. bovis culture-positive (n = 51) and M. bovis-suspect (n = 22) buffaloes, the IP-10 test results were positive in a greater number of animals than the number based on the IFN-γ test results. Most notably, when the biomarkers were measured in parallel, the tests identified all M. bovis culture-positive buffaloes, a result neither the single comparative intradermal tuberculin test (SCITT) nor Bovigam® IFN-γ release assay (IGRA) achieved, individually or in parallel. These findings demonstrate the diagnostic potential of this blood-based assay to identify M. bovis-infected African buffaloes and a strategy to maximise the detection of infected animals while maintaining diagnostic specificity and simplifying test procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netanya Bernitz
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Tanya J Kerr
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Wynand J Goosen
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Charlene Clarke
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Roxanne Higgitt
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Eduard O Roos
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - David V Cooper
- Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, PO Box 25, Mtubatuba, 3935, South Africa.
| | - Robin M Warren
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Paul D van Helden
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Sven D C Parsons
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Michele A Miller
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
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21
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Identification of bovine tuberculosis biomarkers to detect tuberculin skin test and IFNγ release assay false negative cattle. Res Vet Sci 2019; 122:7-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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22
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Coad M, Doyle M, Steinbach S, Gormley E, Vordermeier M, Jones G. Simultaneous measurement of antigen-induced CXCL10 and IFN-γ enhances test sensitivity for bovine TB detection in cattle. Vet Microbiol 2019; 230:1-6. [PMID: 30827373 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a disease of economic and zoonotic importance caused mainly by Mycobacterium bovis. In addition to the tuberculin skin test, an interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) release assay (IGRA) blood test has been incorporated in the BTB control programs of numerous countries as an ancillary test to the skin test. A potential disadvantage of the IGRA assay is that it relies solely on the measurement of a single readout (i.e. IFN-γ) for the detection of BTB. In this study we have assessed the practical use of CXCL10 as an additional biomarker for the diagnosis of BTB in the setting of the current testing approach alongside IGRA. To do so, we have assessed both IFN-γ and CXCL10 readouts in blood cultures from a variety of different BTB cattle groups stimulated with standard tuberculin reagents and also with more specific defined antigens (ESAT-6, CFP-10 and Rv3615c). When using a tuberculin based whole blood assay, CXCL10 alone could not substitute for IFN-γ as the analyte measured in the test without reducing the sensitivity of detecting BTB animals. However, when used as an additional test readout, CXCL10 identified BTB animals that failed to induce IFN-γ responses. When tested in non-infected animals, the use of the dual biomarker system had the potential to lower overall test specificity, however this could be overcome by raising the cut-off values for CXCL10 test positivity. Taken together, the results demonstrate that in particular settings, measurement of CXCL10 has the potential to complement the current use of IFN-γ in blood assays to maximise the detection of BTB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Coad
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Mairead Doyle
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sabine Steinbach
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Eamonn Gormley
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Dublin, Ireland
| | - Martin Vordermeier
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Jones
- TB Immunology and Vaccinology, Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
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Llibre A, Duffy D. Immune response biomarkers in human and veterinary research. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 59:57-62. [PMID: 30290889 PMCID: PMC7172169 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Biomarkers are increasingly utilised in biological research and clinical practice for diagnosis of disease, monitoring of therapeutic prognosis, or as end points in clinical studies. Cytokines are small molecules that orchestrate immune responses and as such have great potential as biomarkers for both human and veterinary fields. Given the ease of sampling in the blood, and their high prevalence in clinical applications we will focus on protein detection as an area for biomarker discovery. This is facilitated by new technological developments such as digital ELISA that have led to significant increases in sensitivity. Two highly relevant examples include type I interferons, namely IFNα, that is now directly quantifiable by digital ELISA from biological samples. The application of this approach to the study of the unique bat interferon response may reveal novel findings with applications in both human and veterinary research. As a second example we will describe the use of CXCL10 as a disease biomarker in Tuberculosis, highlighting findings from human and mouse studies that should be considered in veterinary research. In summary, we describe how cytokines may be applied as novel biomarkers and illustrate two key examples where human and veterinary research may complement each other in line with the One Health objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Llibre
- Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; INSERM U1223, Paris, France
| | - Darragh Duffy
- Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; INSERM U1223, Paris, France.
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24
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Xin T, Gao X, Yang H, Li P, Liang Q, Hou S, Sui X, Guo X, Yuan W, Zhu H, Ding J, Jia H. Limitations of Using IL-17A and IFN-γ-Induced Protein 10 to Detect Bovine Tuberculosis. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:28. [PMID: 29560355 PMCID: PMC5845669 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is primarily caused by infection with Mycobacterium bovis, which belongs to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. The airborne route is considered the most common for transmission of M. bovis, and more than 15% of cattle with bTB shed the Mycobacterium, which can be detect by nested PCR to amplify mycobacterial mpb70 from a nasal swab from a cow. To screen for cytokines fostering early and accurate detection of bTB, peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from naturally M. bovis-infected, experimentally M. bovis 68002-infected, and uninfected cattle, then these cells were stimulated by PPD-B, CFP-10-ESAT-6 (CE), or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 6 h. The levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), IFN-γ-induced protein 10 (IP-10), IL-6, IL-12, IL-17A, and tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA were measured using real-time PCR. To explore the cytokines associated with different periods of M. bovis infection, cattle were divided into three groups: PCR-positive, PCR-negative, and uninfected using the tuberculin skin test, CFP-10/ESAT-6/TB10.4 protein cocktail-based skin test, IFN-γ release assay (IGRA), CFP-10/ESAT-6 (CE)-based IGRA, and nested PCR. The expression of IP-10, IL-17A, and IFN-γ proteins induced by PPD-B, CE, or PBS was detected by ELISA. The results showed that levels of PPD-B-stimulated IL-17A and IP-10 (mRNA and protein), and CE-induced IP-10 (mRNA and protein) were significantly higher in cattle naturally or experimentally infected with M. bovis than in those that were uninfected. The levels of PPD-B- or CE-induced IL-17A and IP-10 (protein) could be used to differentiate M. bovis-infected calves from uninfected ones for 6 to 30 weeks post-infection, whereas PPD-B- and CE-induced IP-10 and IL-17A mRNA expression could be used to differentiate M. bovis-infected calves from uninfected ones between 6 and 58 weeks post-infection. However, CE-induced IL-17A (protein) was not a reliable indicator of M. bovis infection in cattle that were confirmed positive for infection by nested PCR. Furthermore, the levels of PPD-B- or CE-induced IP-10 and IL-17A protein were lower than IFN-γ in M. bovis-infected cattle. Therefore, IL-17A and IP-10 protein are not suitable biomarkers for bTB. Antigen-induced IP-10 mRNA should be analyzed further for their potential to be used in the diagnosis of bTB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Xin
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Xintao Gao
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Hongjun Yang
- Dairy Cattle Research Center, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Pingjun Li
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Qianqian Liang
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Shaohua Hou
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Xiukun Sui
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China.,Molecular and Cellular Biology, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech University of Liège (ULg), Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Xiaoyu Guo
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Weifeng Yuan
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Hongfei Zhu
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Jiabo Ding
- China Institute of Veterinary Drugs Control, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Jia
- Institute of Animal Sciences (IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
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Positive Correlation between IP-10 and IFN- γ Levels in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with Either Naturally Acquired or Experimental Infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:5089752. [PMID: 28512637 PMCID: PMC5415663 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5089752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Numerous studies identify that IP-10 and IFN-γ are involved in leucocyte migration and activation and regarded as promising surrogate biomarkers in human and bovine tuberculosis infection, but there is lack of evidence for IP-10 in nonhuman primates. In this study, we directly determined IP-10 and IFN-γ levels in plasma from 30 healthy monkeys, 30 monkeys with naturally acquired tuberculosis, 4 monkeys experimentally infected with tuberculosis, and PPD stimulated whole blood of 14 monkeys with naturally acquired tuberculosis by ELISA. Higher plasma levels of IP-10 and IFN-γ were observed in natural tuberculosis monkeys than in healthy controls. The dynamic changes of plasma IP-10 and IFN-γ in experimental infections showed consistent representation of a transient increase during the infection period. After PPD stimulation, release of IP-10 and IFN-γ is significantly induced in natural tuberculosis monkeys, but the stimulation index of IP-10 was significantly lower than IFN-γ. Further analysis showed that positive correlation between IP-10 and IFN-γ existed in healthy and tuberculosis monkeys. Our findings support plasma IP-10 and IFN-γ as biomarkers for monitoring ongoing inflammation of nonhuman primate tuberculosis, and IFN-γ is a more valuable diagnostic biomarker.
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Roperto S, Varano M, Russo V, Lucà R, Cagiola M, Gaspari M, Ceccarelli DM, Cuda G, Roperto F. Proteomic analysis of protein purified derivative of Mycobacterium bovis. J Transl Med 2017; 15:68. [PMID: 28372590 PMCID: PMC5376687 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-017-1172-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tuberculin skin test based on in vivo intradermal inoculation of purified protein derivative from Mycobacterium bovis (bPPD) is the diagnostic test for the control and surveillance of bovine tuberculosis (bTB). Methods Proteomic analysis was performed on different bPPD preparations from M. bovis, strain AN5. Proteins were precipitated from bPPD solutions by TCA precipitation. The proteome of bPPD preparations was investigated by bottom-up proteomics, which consisted in protein digestion and nano-LC–MS/MS analysis. Mass spectrometry analysis was performed on a Q-exactive hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer coupled online to an Easy nano-LC1000 system. Results Three hundred and fifty-six proteins were identified and quantified by at least 2 peptides (99% confidence per peptide). One hundred and ninety-eight proteins, which had not been previously described, were detected; furthermore, the proteomic profile shared 80 proteins with previous proteomes from bPPDs from the United Kingdom and Brazil and 139 protein components from bPPD from Korea. Locus name of M. bovis (Mb) with orthologs from M. tuberculosis H37Rv, comparative gene and protein length, molecular mass, functional categories, gene name and function of each protein were reported. Ninety-two T cell mycobacterial antigens responsible for delayed-type hypersensitivity were detected, fifty-two of which were not previously reported in any bPPD proteome. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD005920. Conclusions This study represents the highest proteome coverage of bPPD preparations to date. Since proteins perform cellular functions essential to health and/or disease, obtaining knowledge of their presence and variance is of great importance in understanding disease states and for advancing translational studies. Therefore, to better understand Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex biology during infection, survival, and persistence, the reproducible evaluation of the proteins that catalyze and control these processes is critically important. More active and more specific tuberculins would be desirable. Indeed, many antigens contained within bPPD are currently responsible for the cross-reactivity resulting in false-positive results as they are shared between non-tuberculous and tuberculous mycobacteria. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-017-1172-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sante Roperto
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e delle Produzioni Animali, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy.
| | - Mariaconcetta Varano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università di Catanzaro "Magna Græcia" Campus "S. Venuta", Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Valeria Russo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e delle Produzioni Animali, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Roberta Lucà
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e delle Produzioni Animali, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Monica Cagiola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico dell'Umbria e delle Marche, Perugia, Italy
| | - Marco Gaspari
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università di Catanzaro "Magna Græcia" Campus "S. Venuta", Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Dora Maria Ceccarelli
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e delle Produzioni Animali, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cuda
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università di Catanzaro "Magna Græcia" Campus "S. Venuta", Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Franco Roperto
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Clarke C, Patterson SJ, Drewe JA, van Helden PD, Miller MA, Parsons SDC. Development and evaluation of a diagnostic cytokine-release assay for Mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta). BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:2. [PMID: 28052763 PMCID: PMC5209895 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0927-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Sensitive diagnostic tools are necessary for the detection of Mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta) in order to more clearly understand the epidemiology of tuberculosis and the ecological consequences of the disease in this species. We therefore aimed to develop a cytokine release assay to measure antigen-specific cell-mediated immune responses of meerkats. Results Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were evaluated for the detection of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and IFN-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10) in meerkat plasma. An IP-10 ELISA was selected to measure the release of this cytokine in whole blood in response to Bovigam® PC-HP Stimulating Antigen, a commercial peptide pool of M. bovis antigens. Using this protocol, captive meerkats with no known M. suricattae exposure (n = 10) were tested and results were used to define a diagnostic cut off value (mean plus 2 standard deviations). This IP-10 release assay (IPRA) was then evaluated in free-living meerkats with known M. suricattae exposure, categorized as having either a low, moderate or high risk of infection with this pathogen. In each category, respectively, 24.7%, 27.3% and 82.4% of animals tested IPRA-positive. The odds of an animal testing positive was 14.0 times greater for animals with a high risk of M. suricattae infection compared to animals with a low risk. Conclusion These results support the use of this assay as a measure of M. suricattae exposure in meerkat populations. Ongoing longitudinal studies aim to evaluate the value of the IPRA as a diagnostic test of M. suricattae infection in individual animals. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0927-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlene Clarke
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research; DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Stuart James Patterson
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Julian Ashley Drewe
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Paul David van Helden
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research; DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Michele Ann Miller
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research; DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sven David Charles Parsons
- SAMRC Centre for TB Research; DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.
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