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Lam HY, Jayasinghe S, Ahuja KDK, Hills AP. Active School Commuting in School Children: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Future Research Implications. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6929. [PMID: 37887667 PMCID: PMC10606062 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20206929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Active school commuting (ASC) has been proposed as a practical way to inculcate positive physical activity habits in children. This paper reviews the current evidence regarding ASC among children, highlights advances in research techniques and existing limitations in the field, and outlines future implications for research and promotion. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify English language studies on ASC among children aged 6-12 years, followed by a narrative review. ASC has witnessed a global decline, despite evidence of its contribution to physical activity levels. Context-dependent factors such as commuting distance and parental safety concerns are consistently identified as key determinants of ASC. Several promising interventions have been identified. Despite the limitations in intervention scope and quality, notable advancements in research techniques, such as multilevel regression and agent-based modelling, have been identified. Effective promotion of ASC to tackle childhood physical inactivity requires collaborative efforts among schools, parents, and the government, and should be tailored to address multilevel determinants within the local context. Future research should leverage recent advancements in research techniques to develop effective promotion strategies, while considering the context-dependent nature of ASC behaviours and addressing existing limitations, including the lack of standardised definitions and limited geographical and age coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Yeung Lam
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS 7250, Australia; (S.J.); (K.D.K.A.); (A.P.H.)
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Brindley C, Hamrik Z, Kleszczewska D, Dzielska A, Mazur J, Haug E, Kopcakova J, Marques A, Altenburg T, Demetriou Y, Bucksch J. Gender-specific social and environmental correlates of active travel to school in four European countries: the HBSC Study. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1190045. [PMID: 37559734 PMCID: PMC10407096 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1190045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Despite the health benefits, a large proportion of girls and boys in Europe do not travel to school actively. A better understanding of the correlates associated with this behavior could guide interventions. This study examines perceived social and environmental correlates of active travel to school (ACTS) from the 2017/18 Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) survey in four European countries, with a special emphasis on gender differences (n = 22,023). Methods Logistic regression was conducted to analyze associations between the perceived importance of each correlate and ACTS behavior for 11-, 13-, and 15-year-old girls and boys from Germany, Czechia, Poland, and Slovakia. All models were adjusted for age, family affluence, and meeting World Health Organization recommendations for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Results Rates of ACTS significantly differed between girls and boys. In Czechia, 65% of girls and boys traveled to school actively, followed by Slovakia (61.4% girls and 58.4% boys), Poland (57.7% girls and 60.2% boys), and Germany (42.6% girls and 48.6% boys). Girls were less likely to actively travel to school compared to boys (odds ratio [OR]: 0.92, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.87-0.97). Increasing age (OR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.93-0.97) and a greater distance to school index (OR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.88-0.90) were both negatively associated with ACTS. The perceived importance of living closer to school and of road and neighborhood safety was positively associated with ACTS, with a stronger association in boys than in girls for neighborhood safety. On the contrary, the perceived importance of having people to walk with was negatively associated with ACTS, with a stronger association in girls (OR: 0.74, 95% CI: 0.65-0.84) than in boys (OR: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.66-0.88). Discussion This study provides insights into perceived social and environmental correlates associated with ACTS behavior. Future research should include gender-specific perceptions and more in-depth investigations of correlates encouraging ACTS, especially considering social aspects, safety issues, and the structuring of the environment in different cultural settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherina Brindley
- Department of Natural and Sociological Sciences, Heidelberg University of Education, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Zdenek Hamrik
- Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
| | | | - Anna Dzielska
- Department of Child and Adolescent Health, Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Mazur
- Department of Humanization in Medicine and Sexology, University of Zielona Gora, Collegium Medicum, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Ellen Haug
- Department of Health Promotion and Development, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Teacher Education, NLA University College, Bergen, Norway
| | - Jaroslava Kopcakova
- Department of Health Psychology and Research Methodology, Faculty of Medicine, P.J. Safarik University, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Adilson Marques
- CIPER, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Teatske Altenburg
- Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yolanda Demetriou
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jens Bucksch
- Department of Natural and Sociological Sciences, Heidelberg University of Education, Heidelberg, Germany
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Wex I, Geserick M, Leibert T, Igel U, Sobek C, Meigen C, Kiess W, Vogel M. Active school transport in an urban environment:prevalence and perceived barriers. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:557. [PMID: 36959624 PMCID: PMC10037850 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-15464-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Active school transport (AST) can increase children's and adolescents' physical activity. The proportion of children and adolescents who engage in AST has declined internationally in recent decades. This study examines the prevalence, correlates, and perceived barriers to AST in the city of Leipzig, Germany. METHODS The study sample includes 1070 participants, 364 children and 706 adolescents, aged between 6 and 18 years, as well as their parents. The parents as well as adolescents age 10 and above completed questionnaires concerning sociodemographic variables, means of transport/AST and perceived barriers to AST. The distance between home and school was calculated as the network distance from the home to school address using the Dijkstra algorithm. Based on these data, logistic models were fitted in a two-step variable selection process, using AST as the dependent variable. RESULTS Approximately half of the children (59%) and adolescents (51%) engaged in AST. The prevalence of AST exhibited a negative correlation with age (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.9-0.99, p = 0.015) and did not significantly differ by gender (children: ORgirls = 1.5, CI = 0.95-2.25, p = 0.075, adolescents: ORgirls = 1.01, CI = 0.75-1.37, p = 0.924). A high socioeconomic status was positively correlated to AST on the morning trip (OR = 1.7, CI 1.3-2.21, p < 0.01) but negatively on the afternoon trip (OR = 0.7, CI = 0.53-0.9, p < 0.01) in the summer. Common barriers for children (from their parents' perspective) and for adolescents (from their own and their parents' perspective) were distance and a heavy load to carry. The parents of adolescents did not perceive any other specific barriers as a serious impediment. Further significant barriers perceived by the younger children's parents were adults giving a lift on the way to other errands, no other children to walk or cycle with, and too much traffic. Too much traffic was also a significant barrier for adolescents, as were taking too much time and bad weather conditions. CONCLUSIONS Future interventions promoting AST in an urban environment should be guided by the identified perceived barriers. TRIAL REGISTRATION LIFE Child has been retrospectively registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02550236).
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Wex
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mandy Geserick
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Women and Child Health, Hospital for Children and Adolescents and Center for Paediatric Research (CPL), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tim Leibert
- Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ulrike Igel
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Women and Child Health, Hospital for Children and Adolescents and Center for Paediatric Research (CPL), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Social Work, University of Applied Science, 99085, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Carolin Sobek
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Women and Child Health, Hospital for Children and Adolescents and Center for Paediatric Research (CPL), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christof Meigen
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wieland Kiess
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Women and Child Health, Hospital for Children and Adolescents and Center for Paediatric Research (CPL), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mandy Vogel
- LIFE Child, LIFE Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
- Department of Women and Child Health, Hospital for Children and Adolescents and Center for Paediatric Research (CPL), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.
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Han L, Wang Y, Ao Y, Ding X, Li M, Wang T. The built environment impacts on route choice from home to school for rural students: A stated preference experiment. Front Public Health 2022; 10:1087467. [PMID: 36568754 PMCID: PMC9768427 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1087467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Rural roads and built environment in China have been developed enormously, but it is not clear whether these roads fulfill the needs of school children as they need to travel long to school every day. Objective It is crucial to understand the influencing factors of their travel mode choices to better design future country roads and built environment, aiming to promote physical activities of school children in a safe built environment. Method This study thus attempts to explore the impacts of rural built environment attributes on children's school travel mode preferences. Eight rural built environment attributes are considered: distance from home to school; the number of intersections passed on the way to school; whether there are sidewalks/bicycle lanes; the traffic speed of school access routes; whether there are separation facilities between motor vehicles and non-motor vehicles; whether there are traffic lights and zebra crossings; availability of greenery such as lawns, flower ponds and street trees and whether there are shops on the way to school and at the school gate. Six hundred and thirty eight valid questionnaires were obtained through face-to-face interviews with school-age children in villages. A multinomial logit model was estimated to unravel the preferences and choices of rural school-age children in different models of school travel using the stated choice data. Results All the eight attributes have significant impacts on rural children's school travel choices on foot, bicycle, electric bicycle or motorbike. And four rural road design attributes have significant effects on rural children's school travel by private cars. A travel path with pavements or bike lanes, few intersections, low traffic speeds, greenery and shops can facilitate children's school travels on foot or by bike. The conclusions can provide reference for the further upgrading planning, designing and construction of rural roads, as well as enriching the theory and practice of child-friendly villages construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Han
- College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Engineering Management, Sichuan College of Architectural Technology, Chengdu, China
| | - Yibin Ao
- College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuan Ding
- College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingyang Li
- College of Management Science, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
| | - Tong Wang
- Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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Hoelscher DM, Ganzar LA, Salvo D, Kohl HW, Pérez A, Brown HS, Bentley SS, Dooley EE, Emamian A, Durand CP. Effects of Large-Scale Municipal Safe Routes to School Infrastructure on Student Active Travel and Physical Activity: Design, Methods, and Baseline Data of the Safe Travel Environment Evaluation in Texas Schools (STREETS) Natural Experiment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:1810. [PMID: 35162829 PMCID: PMC8834930 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Past evaluations of Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs have been relatively small in scope and have lacked objective measurements of physical activity. A 2016 Mobility Bond in Austin, Texas, USA, allocated USD 27.5 million for infrastructure changes to facilitate active commuting to schools (ACS). The Safe TRavel Environment Evaluation in Texas Schools (STREETS) study aims to determine the health effects of these infrastructure changes. The purpose of this paper is to describe the STREETS study design, methods, and selected baseline results. The STREETS study is comprised of two designs: (1) a serial cross-sectional design to assess changes in ACS prevalence, and (2) a quasi-experimental, prospective cohort to examine changes in physical activity. Differences between study arms (Austin SRTS and comparison) were assessed for school demographics, ACS, and school programs. At baseline, 14.3% of school trips were made by ACS, with non-significant differences between study arms. Only 26% of schools implemented ACS-related programs. Some significant differences across SRTS and comparison schools were identified for several school- and neighborhood-level characteristics. Substantial changes are needed across area schools and neighborhoods to promote optimum ACS. STREETS study longitudinal findings will be critical for informing optimal future implementations of SRTS programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna M Hoelscher
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
| | - Leigh Ann Ganzar
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
| | - Deborah Salvo
- Prevention Research Center in St. Louis, Brown School, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Harold W Kohl
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Adriana Pérez
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
| | - Henry Shelton Brown
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
| | - Sarah S Bentley
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, School of Public Health in Austin, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Austin, TX 78701, USA
| | - Erin E Dooley
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
| | - Amir Emamian
- Public Works Department, City of Austin, Austin, TX 78704, USA
| | - Casey P Durand
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, Department of Health Promotion & Behavioral Sciences, School of Public Health in Houston, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Burford K, Ganzar LA, Lanza K, Kohl HW, Hoelscher DM. School-Level Economic Disparities in Police-Reported Crimes and Active Commuting to School. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182010885. [PMID: 34682631 PMCID: PMC8535774 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Perceived safety remains one of the main barriers for children to participate in active commuting to school (ACS). This ecological study examined the associations between the number of police-reported crimes in school neighborhoods and ACS. The percentage of active travel trips was assessed from a teacher tally survey collected from students across 63 elementary schools that were primarily classified as high-poverty (n = 27). Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to create a detailed measure of police-reported crimes during 2018 and neighborhood covariates that occurred within a one-mile Euclidean buffer of the schools. Statistical analyses included linear fixed effects regressions and negative binomial regressions. In fully-adjusted models, reported crime did not exhibit significant associations with ACS. Medium-poverty schools were indirectly associated with ACS when compared to high- and low-poverty schools in all models (p < 0.05). Connectivity and vehicle ownership were also directly associated with ACS (p < 0.05). Low- and medium-poverty schools were indirectly associated with all types of reported crime when compared to high-poverty schools (p < 0.05). Although reported crime was not associated with school-level ACS, differences in ACS and reported crime do exist across school poverty levels, suggesting a need to develop and promote safe and equitable ACS interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Burford
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Public Health in Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA; (L.A.G.); (K.L.); (H.W.K.III); (D.M.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-512-466-9603
| | - Leigh Ann Ganzar
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Public Health in Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA; (L.A.G.); (K.L.); (H.W.K.III); (D.M.H.)
| | - Kevin Lanza
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Public Health in Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA; (L.A.G.); (K.L.); (H.W.K.III); (D.M.H.)
| | - Harold W. Kohl
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Public Health in Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA; (L.A.G.); (K.L.); (H.W.K.III); (D.M.H.)
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Deanna M. Hoelscher
- Michael and Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Public Health in Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA; (L.A.G.); (K.L.); (H.W.K.III); (D.M.H.)
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Measuring the Built Environment in Studies of Child Health-A Meta-Narrative Review of Associations. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182010741. [PMID: 34682484 PMCID: PMC8535212 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Although the built environment (BE) is important for children’s health, there is little consensus about which features are most important due to differences in measurement and outcomes across disciplines. This meta-narrative review was undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team of researchers to summarise ways in which the BE is measured, and how this links to children’s health. A structured search of four databases across the relevant disciplines retrieved 108 relevant references. The most commonly addressed health-related outcomes were active travel, physical activity and play, and obesity. Many studies used objective (GIS and street audits) or standardised subjective (perceived) measurements of the BE. However, there was a wide variety, and sometimes inconsistency, in their definition and use. There were clear associations between the BE and children’s health. Objective physical activity and self-reported active travel, or obesity, were positively associated with higher street connectivity or walkability measures, while self-reported physical activity and play had the strongest association with reduced street connectivity, indicated by quieter, one-way streets. Despite the high heterogeneity found in BE measures and health outcomes, the meta-narrative approach enabled us to identify ten BE categories that are likely to support children’s health and be protective against some non-communicable disease risk factors. Future research should implement consistent BE measures to ensure key features are explored. A systems approach will be particularly relevant for addressing place-based health inequalities, given potential unintended health consequences of making changes to the BE.
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Almagor J, Martin A, McCrorie P, Mitchell R. How can an agent-based model explore the impact of interventions on children's physical activity in an urban environment? Health Place 2021; 72:102688. [PMID: 34628149 PMCID: PMC8633766 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Insufficient physical activity (PA) among most children and adolescents is a global problem that is undermining the realisation of numerous developmental and health benefits. The aim of this study was to explore the potential impact of interventions on PA by using an agent-based model (ABM) simulating children's daily activities in an urban environment. Three domains for interventions were explored: outdoor play, school physical education and active travel. Simulated interventions increased children's average daily moderate-to-vigorous PA by 2–13 min and reduced the percentage of children not meeting PA guidelines, from 34% to 10%–29%, depending on the intervention. Promotion of active travel and outdoor play benefited more those in a higher socio-economic position. Agents' interactions suggested that: encouraging activity in diverse groups will reduce percentage of the least active in the population; and initiating outdoor events in neighbourhoods can generate an enhancing effect on children's engagement in PA. The ABM provided measurable outcomes for interventions that are difficult to estimate using reductionist methods. We suggest that ABMs should be used more commonly to explore the complexity of the social-environmental PA system. We developed an agent-based model simulating children's daily physical activity. Agents perform typical daily activities in a virtual urban model of Glasgow city. Simulations explore impact of interventions on outdoor play, school, active travel. Promotion of active travel had a differential impact across socio-economic position. Outdoor play intervention produced a non-linear increase in physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Almagor
- MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Berkeley Square, 99 Berkeley Street, G3 7HR, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
| | - Anne Martin
- MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Berkeley Square, 99 Berkeley Street, G3 7HR, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Paul McCrorie
- MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Berkeley Square, 99 Berkeley Street, G3 7HR, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Rich Mitchell
- MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Berkeley Square, 99 Berkeley Street, G3 7HR, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
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