1
|
Zhu Y, Wang Z, Li R, Li Y, Bai P, Gao W, Zhong Y. Skiing economy and kinematic during a field double poling roller skiing among novice and experienced cross-country skiers. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7073. [PMID: 38528144 PMCID: PMC10963750 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57719-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
To assess the skiing economy (SE) and kinematics during double poling (DP) roller skiing between two groups of skiers in a field setting. Five experienced and five novice male skiers performed a SEDP test at 16 km∙h-1 on an outdoor athletics track. Gas exchange parameters were measured to determine SEDP. A two-dimensional video was filmed to measure the kinematics variables. Experienced skiers exhibited a 21% lower oxygen cost than novice skiers (p = 0.016) in DP, indicating a strong association between SEDP, cycle length and cycle rate (p < 0.001). Additionally, before the poling phase, experienced skiers manifested significantly greater maximum hip and knee extension angles than novice skiers (p < 0.001). During the poling phase, experienced skiers with a greater pole plant angle (p = 0.001), longer flexion time (p < 0.001) and higher flexion angular velocity in the elbow joint (p < 0.05) demonstrated better SEDP. There was an interaction effect of the one-repetition maximum bench press × group in SEDP (b = - 0.656, SE = 0.097, t = - 6.78, p = 0.001). Therefore, experienced skiers with better SEDP demonstrated more efficient cycles, potentially accomplished using dynamic full-body DP motion to ascertain effective propulsion. Combined upper body strength and ski-specific skill training may enhance SEDP in novice skiers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhu
- Sports Big-data Research Center, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Basic Science, Wuchang Shouyi University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Sports Big-data Research Center, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ruoyang Li
- School of Competitive Sports, Shandong Sports University, Jinan, China
| | - Yanyan Li
- School of Sports Economics and Management, Hubei University of Economics, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Bai
- Sports Big-data Research Center, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China
| | - Weifeng Gao
- Department of Physical Education, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yaping Zhong
- Sports Big-data Research Center, Wuhan Sports University, Wuhan, China.
- Hubei Sports and Health Innovation and Development Research Center, Wuhan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Therell T, Jansson D, Theos A. Effects of Core Strength Training on Skiing Economy in Elite Junior Cross-Country Skiers. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2022; 93:608-614. [PMID: 34665683 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2021.1887441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: In cross-country (XC) skiing, the ability to use an efficient technique is essential for performance. The study aimed to compare the effects of supplemental static or dynamic core strength training on skiing economy in elite junior XC skiers. Methods: Twenty-four elite junior XC skiers (14 women, 10 men; 17.8 ± 1.1 years; 67.8 ± 10.0 kg, 173.7 ± 6.4 cm) participated in this study. Participants were allocated either to a static core training (ST) group (n =12) or to a dynamic core training (DT) group (n = 12). Both groups continued their normal aerobic endurance and muscular strength training. Experimental groups performed a 15 minutes, 3 days/week core strength-training program for 9 weeks and in addition to their training. Submaximal and maximal roller ski testing was conducted before and after the 9-week training period. Results: Results showed no significant interaction between groups for energetic costs in any of the submaximal workloads (first, p = .33; second, p =.79; third, p = .25). Pooled data showed a significant improvement in energetic cost pre- to posttesting in the first and third workload (ES 0.40, p = .0006 and ES 0.42, p = .04 respectively). Nine weeks of static or dynamic core strength training in elite junior XC skiers had a small effect on energetic cost in submaximal roller skiing. Conclusion: The type of supplemental core strength training does not seem to affect economy in submaximal roller skiing.
Collapse
|
3
|
Castañeda-Babarro A, Etayo-Urtasun P, León-Guereño P. Effects of Strength Training on Cross-Country Skiing Performance: A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19116522. [PMID: 35682103 PMCID: PMC9179959 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19116522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, cross-country skiing has been known for having a strong endurance component; however, strength demands have significantly increased in recent years. Given this importance, several studies have assessed the effects of strength training in cross-country skiing. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to analyze the results of those studies. A detailed search of four databases (Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science and Cochrane Library) was conducted until February 2022, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Ten eligible studies were selected from the 212 records identified, all of them including young well-trained skiers and interventions of 6–12 weeks. Results showed that maximal strength training may improve some important variables: for instance, performance, double-poling economy and maximal strength. However, this type of training failed to change other indicators such as peak oxygen consumption. Concurrent training, which combines endurance and maximal strength training, seems to be effective to improve performance. The mechanisms responsible for the improved economy of double poling might be due to a lower percentage of maximal strength during double poling at a given workload, which could increase performance. Future studies should include longer interventions which analyze a more varied sample.
Collapse
|
4
|
Sollie O, Losnegard T. Anthropometrical and Physiological Determinants of Laboratory and on-Snow Performance in Competitive Adolescent Cross-Country Skiers. Front Physiol 2022; 13:819979. [PMID: 35685288 PMCID: PMC9170917 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.819979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To explore the anthropometrical and physiological determinants of laboratory and on-snow performance in competitive adolescent cross-country skiers. Methods: Fifty-two adolescent (25 girls) (14.8 ± 0.6 years) skiers performed an uphill treadmill rollerski session using the G2 ski skating technique. Gross efficiency (GE) was calculated from a submaximal work bout (∼84% of peak oxygen uptake; V̇O2peak) while V̇O2peak, accumulated oxygen deficit (ΣO2def) and laboratory performance were determined from a 3-min time trial (TT3min) before upper- and lower-body maximum strength were tested. Pearson’s product moment correlations and multiple regression analysis explored the relationship with anthropometrical and physiological determinations of laboratory and on-snow performance in sprint (∼1 km, ∼2.5–3 min) and distance races (5–7.5 km, ∼12–20 min) from the national championship for this age-group. Results: A large correlation was found between on-snow sprint and distance performance (boys r = 0.61, girls r = 0.76, both p < 0.01) and for on-snow distance performance with TT 3min (r = 0.51 to 0.56, p < 0.05). V̇O2peak, ΣO2def and GE explained ∼80% of variations in performance in the TT3min, but substantial lower on-snow skiing performance (∼20–30%). For the TT3min performance, V̇O2peak showed a very large and large correlation for boys and girls (r = 0.76 and 0.65 respectively, both p < 0.01), ΣO2def showed a large correlation for boys and girls (r = 0.53 and 0.55 respectively, both p < 0.01) and age showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.56, p < 0.01), with no significant correlation for girls (r = -0.19). For on-snow distance performance, V̇O2peak showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) and girls (r = 0.50, p < 0.05). For on-snow sprint performance, upper-body strength (r = 0.55, both sexes p < 0.01) and body mass index (BMI) showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) and girls (r = 0.51, p < 0.05). Conclusion: V̇O2peak is an important determinant for overall XC skiing performance in competitive male and female adolescent skiers. However, upper-body strength and BMI correlate the most with sprint performance. While laboratory performance can to a large extent be explained by physiological factors, on-snow-performance for adolescents is based more on multivariate factors (tactics, equipment’s, technique, racecourse etc.), implying the need for a holistic approach to understanding the sport-specific demands in such age-groups.
Collapse
|
5
|
Carlsson T, Fjordell W, Wedholm L, Swarén M, Carlsson M. The Modern Double-Poling Technique Is Not More Energy Efficient Than the Old-Fashioned Double-Poling Technique at a Submaximal Work Intensity. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:850541. [PMID: 35663501 PMCID: PMC9157588 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.850541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate whether there are energy-efficiency differences between the execution of the old-fashioned double-poling technique (DPOLD) and the modern double-poling technique (DPMOD) at a submaximal work intensity among elite male cross-country skiers. Fifteen elite male cross-country skiers completed two 4-min tests at a constant mechanical work rate (MWR) using the DPMOD and DPOLD. During the last minute of each test, the mean oxygen uptake (VO2) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were analyzed, from which the metabolic rate (MR) and gross efficiency (GE) were calculated. In addition, the difference between pretest and posttest blood-lactate concentrations (BLadiff) was determined. For each technique, skiers' joint angles (i.e., heel, ankle, knee, hip, shoulder, and elbow) were analyzed at the highest and lowest positions during the double-poling cycle. Paired-samples t-tests were used to investigate differences between DPMOD and DPOLD outcomes. There were no significant differences in either VO2mean, MR, GE, or BLadiff (all P > 0.05) between the DPMOD and DPOLD tests. DPMOD execution was associated with a higher RER (P < 0.05). Significant technique-specific differences were found in either the highest and/or the lowest position for all six analyzed joint angles (all P < 0.001). Hence, despite decades of double-poling technique development, which is reflected in the significant biomechanical differences between DPOLD and DPMOD execution, at submaximal work intensity, the modern technique is not more energy efficient than the old-fashioned technique.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Carlsson
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Tomas Carlsson
| | - Wilma Fjordell
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Lars Wedholm
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Mikael Swarén
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Magnus Carlsson
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jones TW, Lindblom HP, Karlsson Ø, Andersson EP, McGawley K. Anthropometric, Physiological, and Performance Developments in Cross-country Skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53:2553-2564. [PMID: 34649265 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to describe changes in laboratory-assessed anthropometric and physiological characteristics, training volumes, and competitive performance in national development-team cross-country skiers over a 25-month period, and to analyze whether changes in competitive performance could be predicted by changes in laboratory-assessed qualities and training volumes. METHODS Data collected over 25 months from 30 national development-team cross-country skiers (14 women, 16 men; age, 18-23 yr) were analyzed retrospectively using multivariate statistics. Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Total training volumes and distributions of low- and high-intensity training were analyzed from online training diaries, and competitive performance was determined by International Ski Federation (FIS) distance and sprint points. RESULTS Whole- and upper-body lean mass increased in the full cohort of skiers (n = 30; both P < 0.05), whereas lower-body lean mass, whole-body fat mass, speed and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) at a blood lactate concentration (BLa) of 2 and 4 mmol·L-1, as well as time-trial completion time, power output, and peak V˙O2, improved in the women only (all P < 0.05). Valid predictive models were identified for female skiers' best FIS distance points (R2 = 0.81/Q2 = 0.51) and changes in FIS distance points (R2 = 0.83/Q2 = 0.54), with body mass, fat mass, lean mass, V˙O2peak, and speed at a BLa of 4 mmol·L-1 identified as consistently important variables for projection. CONCLUSIONS The valid prediction of competitive performance was achieved for women only in distance events. This study suggests that improvements in body composition and aerobic capacity may be more beneficial for elite female development-level skiers than for their male counterparts. These results have implications for athlete selection and performance development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jones
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, SWEDEN
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
The influence of a rocking-motion device built into classic cross-country roller-ski bindings on biomechanical, physiological and performance outcomes. SPORTS ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12283-021-00361-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThis study aimed to determine whether the recently developed Flow Motion Technology® roller-ski prototype could improve indicators of performance during sub-maximal and maximal cross-country roller skiing. Thirteen national and international cross-country skiers completed 2 experimental trials: 1 with Flow Motion Technology® activated, allowing a rocking motion between the foot and ski binding, and 1 with the foot fixed in a traditional manner. Each trial included 2 sub-maximal bouts using the diagonal-stride and double-poling sub-techniques, as well as a double-poling maximal velocity test and a diagonal-stride 6-min time trial. There were no differences in performance between Flow Motion Technology® and traditional roller skiing during the maximal velocity test or the time trial. However, reductions in mean plantar force during sub-maximal diagonal stride (p = 0.011) and ankle range of motion during sub-maximal (p = 0.010) and maximal (p = 0.041) diagonal stride were observed with Flow Motion Technology® versus traditional roller skiing. This, together with a reduced minimum horizontal distance of the hips in front of the ankles during sub-maximal double poling (p = 0.001), indicated impaired technique with Flow Motion Technology®, which may have contributed to the trend for reduced gross efficiency during double poling with Flow Motion Technology® (pη2 = 0.214). Significant physiological differences included a reduced sub-maximal double poling respiratory exchange ratio (p = 0.03) and a greater maximal heart rate during the time trial (p = 0.014) with Flow Motion Technology®. We conclude that the application of Flow Motion Technology® requires further examination before use in training and competition.
Collapse
|
8
|
Comparison of Physiological and Biomechanical Responses to Flat and Uphill Cross-Country Sit-Skiing in Able-Bodied Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1596-1602. [PMID: 33831842 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare peak work rate (WRpeak) and associated physiological and biomechanical performance-determining variables between flat and uphill cross-country (XC) sit-skiing. METHODS Fifteen able-bodied male XC skiers completed 2 test sessions, each comprising four 4-minute submaximal stages, followed by an incremental test to exhaustion and a verification test in a sit-ski on a roller-ski treadmill. The test sessions were counterbalanced by the incline, being either 0.5% (FLAT) or 5% (UPHILL). The authors compared WRpeak and peak oxygen uptake, as well as physiological variables, rating of perceived exertion, gross efficiency, and cycle characteristics at identical submaximal work rate, between FLAT and UPHILL. RESULTS In UPHILL, WRpeak was 35% higher compared to FLAT (P < .001), despite no difference in peak oxygen uptake (P = .9). The higher WRpeak in UPHILL was achieved through more work per cycle, which was enabled by the twice as long poling time, compared to FLAT (P < .001). Submaximal gross efficiency was 0.5 to 2 percentage points lower in FLAT compared to UPHILL (P < .001), with an increasing difference as work rate increased (P < .001). Neither cycle rate nor work per cycle differed between inclines when compared at identical submaximal work rate (P > .16). CONCLUSIONS The longer poling times utilized in uphill XC sit-skiing enable more work per cycle and better gross efficiency, thereby allowing skiers to achieve a higher WRpeak compared to flat XC sit-skiing. However, the similar values of peak oxygen uptake between inclines indicate that XC sit-skiers can tax their cardiorespiratory capacity similarly in both conditions.
Collapse
|
9
|
Do Sex Differences in Physiology Confer a Female Advantage in Ultra-Endurance Sport? Sports Med 2021; 51:895-915. [PMID: 33502701 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01417-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance has been defined as any exercise bout that exceeds 6 h. A number of exceptional, record-breaking performances by female athletes in ultra-endurance sport have roused speculation that they might be predisposed to success in such events. Indeed, while the male-to-female performance gap in traditional endurance sport (e.g., marathon) remains at ~ 10%, the disparity in ultra-endurance competition has been reported as low as 4% despite the markedly lower number of female participants. Moreover, females generally outperform males in extreme-distance swimming. The issue is complex, however, with many sports-specific considerations and caveats. This review summarizes the sex-based differences in physiological functions and draws attention to those which likely determine success in extreme exercise endeavors. The aim is to provide a balanced discussion of the female versus male predisposition to ultra-endurance sport. Herein, we discuss sex-based differences in muscle morphology and fatigability, respiratory-neuromechanical function, substrate utilization, oxygen utilization, gastrointestinal structure and function, and hormonal control. The literature indicates that while females exhibit numerous phenotypes that would be expected to confer an advantage in ultra-endurance competition (e.g., greater fatigue resistance, greater substrate efficiency, and lower energetic demands), they also exhibit several characteristics that unequivocally impinge on performance (e.g., lower O2-carrying capacity, increased prevalence of GI distress, and sex-hormone effects on cellular function/injury risk). Crucially, the advantageous traits may only manifest as ergogenic in the extreme endurance events which, paradoxically, are those that females less often contest. The title question should be revisited in the coming years, when/if the number of female participants increases.
Collapse
|
10
|
Talsnes RK, Hetland TA, Cai X, Sandbakk Ø. Development of Performance, Physiological and Technical Capacities During a Six-Month Cross-Country Skiing Talent Transfer Program in Endurance Athletes. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:103. [PMID: 33345092 PMCID: PMC7739832 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the development of performance, physiological and technical capacities as well as the effect of sport background among runners, kayakers and rowers when transferred to cross-country (XC) skiing over a 6-month training period. Methods: Twenty-four endurance athletes (15 runners and 9 rowers/kayakers; 15 men and 9 women) were tested for performance, physiological and technical capacities during treadmill running and roller-ski skating, double-poling ergometry, as well as upper-body, one-repetition maximum-strength (1 RM) at baseline (pre) after three (mid) and 6-months (post) of XC ski-specific training. Results: Peak treadmill speed when roller-ski skating improved significantly (13%, P < 0.01) from pre-post, with a larger improvement in runners than in kayakers/rowers (16 vs. 9%, P < 0.05), whereas peak speed in running was unchanged. Average power output during 5-min and 30-s ergometer double-poling tests improved by 8% and 5% (both P < 0.01), with improvement found only in runners on the 30-s test (8 vs. −2% in kayakers/rowers, P < 0.01). Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in running and double-poling ergometry did not improve, whereas VO2peak in roller-ski skating improved by 5% in runners (P < 0.05). Submaximal gross efficiency increased by 0.6%-point and cycle length by 13%, whereas 1 RM in seated pull-down and triceps press increased by 12 and 11%, respectively (all P < 0.05). Conclusion: Six-months of XC ski-specific training induced large improvements in sport-specific performance which were associated with better skiing efficiency, longer cycle length, and greater 1RM upper-body strength in a group of endurance athletes transferring to XC skiing. Furthermore, larger sport-specific development was found in runners compared to kayakers/rowers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway.,Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Tor-Arne Hetland
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway
| | - Xudan Cai
- School of Physical Education and Sport Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China.,Olympic Games Preparation Office, Chinese Olympic Committee, Beijing, China
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Allisse M, Bui HT, Léger L, Comtois AS, Leone M. Updating the Skating Multistage Aerobic Test and Correction for V[Combining Dot Above]O2max Prediction Using a New Skating Economy Index in Elite Youth Ice Hockey Players. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 34:3182-3189. [PMID: 33105369 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Allisse, M, Bui, HT, Léger, L, Comtois, A-S, and Leone, M. Updating the skating multistage aerobic test and correction for V[Combining Dot Above]O2max prediction using a new skating economy index in elite youth ice hockey players. J Strength Cond Res 34(11): 3182-3189, 2020-A number of field tests, including the skating multistage aerobic test (SMAT), have been developed to predict V[Combining Dot Above]O2max in ice hockey players. The SMAT, like most field tests, assumes that participants who reach a given stage have the same oxygen uptake, which is not usually true. Thus, the objectives of this research are to update the V[Combining Dot Above]O2 values during the SMAT using a portable breath-by-breath metabolic analyzer and to propose a simple index of skating economy to improve the prediction of oxygen uptake. Twenty-six elite hockey players (age 15.8 ± 1.3 years) participated in this study. The oxygen uptake was assessed using a portable metabolic analyzer (K4b) during an on-ice maximal shuttle skate test. To develop an index of skating economy called the skating stride index (SSI), the number of skating strides was compiled for each stage of the test. The SMAT enabled the prediction of the V[Combining Dot Above]O2max (ml·kg·min) from the maximal velocity (m·s) and the SSI (skating strides·kg) using the following regression equation: V[Combining Dot Above]O2max = (14.94 × maximal velocity) + (3.68 × SSI) - 24.98 (r = 0.95, SEE = 1.92). This research allowed for the update of the oxygen uptake values of the SMAT and proposed a simple measure of skating efficiency for a more accurate evaluation of V[Combining Dot Above]O2max in elite youth hockey players. By comparing the highest and lowest observed SSI scores in our sample, it was noted that the V[Combining Dot Above]O2 values can vary by up to 5 ml·kg·min. Our results suggest that skating economy should be included in the prediction of V[Combining Dot Above]O2max to improve prediction accuracy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Allisse
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Québec in Chicoutimi, Saguenay, Québec, Canada
- Department of Exercise Sciences, University of Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque, France
| | - Hung Tien Bui
- Department of Applied Sciences, University of Québec in Chicoutimi, Saguenay, Québec, Canada
| | - Luc Léger
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada; and
| | - Alain-Steve Comtois
- Department of Exercise Sciences, University of Québec in Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Mario Leone
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Québec in Chicoutimi, Saguenay, Québec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zoppirolli C, Modena R, Fornasiero A, Bortolan L, Skafidas S, Savoldelli A, Schena F, Pellegrini B. Talent Development in Young Cross-Country Skiers: Longitudinal Analysis of Anthropometric and Physiological Characteristics. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:111. [PMID: 33345100 PMCID: PMC7739632 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Very little is known about talent development and selection processes in young cross-country skiers. Aim: (1) to analyze the effect of age on anthropometric and physiological parameters in medium-to-high level cross-country skiers during the late teenage period; (2) to describe parameters' trend in selected talents after the late teenage period; (3) to define which characteristics during the late teenage period could discriminate against further talent selection. Method: We found 14 male (M) and nine (F) athletes in our database, identified as talents by regional teams during the late teenage period, who performed the same diagonal-stride roller-skiing incremental test to exhaustion at 17 and 18 years old. Of these, four M and three F teenagers performed four further evaluations, and were selected by the national team. Age effect during the late teenage period was verified on anthropometric and physiological parameters measured at maximal intensity (MAX), first (VT1), and second (VT2) ventilatory thresholds, and 3° and 6° of treadmill incline. An observational analysis allowed to evaluate parameters' trend after the late teenage period in selected athletes, and to determine possible characteristics early discriminating further selection. Results: During the late teenage period, height, weight, and BMI was still raising in M as well as V'O2 at VT2 and 6° of treadmill incline (all P > 0.05). In F, mass-scaled V'O2 MAX increased while heart rate (HR) at MAX and VT2 decreased (all P > 0.05). Since the late teenage period, all selected males showed maximal ventilation volumes, absolute V'O2 at MAX, VT1, and VT2 that were within or above the 75th percentile of their group; the same was found in selected females for mass-scaled V'O2 MAX, VT1, and VT2 time. After the late teenage period, all selected athletes showed an increasing trend for VT2 time, while a decreasing trend for sub-maximal energetic cost, %V'O2 and HR. Discussion: During the late teenage period, males are still completing their maturation process. Since the late teenage period, some physiological parameters seem good indicators to early discriminate for further talents. A progressive increase in skiing efficiency was demonstrated in developing talents of both sexes after the late teenage period.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Roberto Modena
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Alessandro Fornasiero
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Bortolan
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Spyros Skafidas
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Aldo Savoldelli
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM (Sport Mountain and Health Research Center), University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Laaksonen MS, Andersson E, Jonsson Kårström M, Lindblom H, McGawley K. Laboratory-Based Factors Predicting Skiing Performance in Female and Male Biathletes. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:99. [PMID: 33345089 PMCID: PMC7739653 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Skiing in biathlon is a high-intensity, intermittent endurance discipline. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between laboratory-derived physiological variables and skiing performance during a field-based biathlon competition (BC) for female and male biathletes. Fourteen female (23 ± 3 year, V˙O2max 56 ± 4 mL·kg−1·min−1) and 14 male (24 ± 4 year, V˙O2max 66 ± 3 mL·kg−1·min−1) biathletes performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing for the assessment of oxygen uptake at a lactate threshold of 4 mmol·L−1 (V˙O2@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae) and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, peak oxygen consumption (V˙O2peak), anaerobic capacity and TT performance. Field-based skiing performance was assessed during a BC. The TT and BC skiing performances were significantly correlated in both sexes (r = 0.68–0.69, p < 0.01). V˙O2peak (31/21%), anaerobic capacity (1/0%), and GE (35/32%) explained 67 and 52% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.051), respectively. A second model showed that V˙O2@4mmol (30/35%), anaerobic capacity (0/0%) and GE (37/13%) explained 67 and 48% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.077), respectively. Results of this study suggest that a high V˙O2@4mmol and GE, but not anaerobic capacity, are important for BC skiing performance, especially for females. In addition, a laboratory-based TT could be useful for regular laboratory testing of biathletes due to its relationship with field-based skiing performance in biathlon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marko S Laaksonen
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Erik Andersson
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Malin Jonsson Kårström
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Hampus Lindblom
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Lajunen K, Rapp W, Ahtiainen JP, Lindinger SJ, Linnamo V. Effect of Sitting Posture on Sit-Skiing Economy in Non-disabled Athletes. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:44. [PMID: 33345036 PMCID: PMC7739656 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study focused on resolving the differences in economy between two common sit-skiing postures used by disabled athletes, suspected to be the most and least effective. Ten experienced non-disabled male cross-country skiers went through an incremental testing protocol with an ergometer simulating double poling in two sitting postures “kneeing” and “knee-high.” The protocol consisted of 3 × 4 min steady-state stages (13, 22, and 34% of maximal sprint power output). Subjects' respiratory gases and heart rate were measured and blood lactate concentrations were determined. In addition, pulling forces and motion capture recordings were collected. Oxygen consumption was 15.5% (p < 0.01) higher with “knee-high” compared to “kneeing” at stage three. At stage three cycle rate was 13.8% higher (p < 0.01) and impulse of force 13.0% (p < 0.05) and hip range of motion 46.6% lower (p < 0.01) with “knee-high” compared to “kneeing.” “Kneeing” was found to be considerably more economical than “knee-high” especially at 34% of maximum sprint power output. This might have been due to higher cycle rate, lower impulse of force and smaller hip range of motion with “knee-high” compared to “kneeing.” This indicates that sit-skiers should adopt, if possible, posture more resembling the “kneeing” than the “knee-high” posture. Combining such physiological and biomechanical measurements and to further develop them to integrated miniature wearable sensors could offer new possibilities for training and testing both in the laboratory and in the field conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimmo Lajunen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Walter Rapp
- Olympic Training Centre Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Juha P. Ahtiainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Stefan J. Lindinger
- Department of Food and Nutrition and Sport Science, Center for Health and Performance, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Vesa Linnamo
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- *Correspondence: Vesa Linnamo
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Skattebo Ø, Losnegard T, Stadheim HK. Double-Poling Physiology and Kinematics of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Specialized Long-Distance Versus All-Round Skiers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:1190-1199. [PMID: 30840518 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Long-distance cross-country skiers specialize to compete in races >50 km predominantly using double poling (DP). This emphasizes the need for highly developed upper-body endurance capacities and an efficient DP technique. The aim of this study was to investigate potential effects of specialization by comparing physiological capacities and kinematics in DP between long-distance skiers and skiers competing using both techniques (skating/classic) in several competition formats ("all-round skiers"). METHODS Seven male long-distance (32 [6] y, 183 [6] cm, 76 [5] kg) and 6 all-round (25 [3] y, 181 [5] cm, 75 [6] kg) skiers at high international levels conducted submaximal workloads and an incremental test to exhaustion for determination of peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and time to exhaustion (TTE) in DP and running. RESULTS In DP and running maximal tests, TTE showed no difference between groups. However, long-distance skiers had 5-6% lower VO2peak in running (81 [5] vs 85 [3] mL·kg-1·min-1; P = .07) and DP (73 [3] vs 78 [3] mL·kg-1·min-1; P < .01) than all-round skiers. In DP, long-distance skiers displayed lower submaximal O2 cost than all-round skiers (3.8 ± 3.6%; P < .05) without any major differences in cycle times or cyclic patterns of joint angles and center of mass. Lactate concentration over a wide range of speeds (45-85% of VO2peak) did not differ between groups, even though each workload corresponded to a slightly higher percentage of VO2peak for long-distance skiers (effect size: 0.30-0.68). CONCLUSIONS The long-distance skiers displayed lower VO2peak but compensated with lower O2 cost to perform equally with the all-round skiers on a short TTE test in DP. Furthermore, similar submaximal lactate concentration and reduced O2 cost could be beneficial in sustaining high skiing speeds in long-duration competitions.
Collapse
|
16
|
Sunde A, Johansen JM, Gjøra M, Paulsen G, Bråten M, Helgerud J, Støren Ø. Stronger Is Better: The Impact of Upper Body Strength in Double Poling Performance. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1091. [PMID: 31507453 PMCID: PMC6716506 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to compare time results from a roller-skiing double poling (DP) time trial with different physiological variables, muscular strength variables, and DP characteristics in both male and female young competitive skiers with the same relative training background. In order to do this, 28 (16 women and 12 men) well-trained 16–25-year-old cross-country skiers from three Norwegian high schools for skiers, as well as local high performance competitive skiers from the South-East of Norway were recruited to participate in the study. All participants were tested for; maximal oxygen uptake in running, Peak oxygen uptake in DP, lactate threshold in DP, DP economy, time to voluntary exhaustion in DP, force analyses in DP, one repetition maximum and power output in pulldown, and leg press and a time trial during DP roller skiing. The results expressed strong correlations between roller skiing time trial performance and maximal strength in pull-down, both independent (rxy = −0.83, p < 0.01) and dependent (rxy–z = −0.50, p < 0.02) of sex. Higher maximal upper body strength was related to higher DP peak forces (PF) (rxy = 0.78, p < 0.02), lower DP frequency (rxy = −0.71, p < 0.01), and shorter DP contact time (CT) (rxy = −0.48, p < 0.02). The practical implications of the present study is to acknowledge maximal upper body strength as a performance determining factor in DP. This point at the importance of including maximal strength training in cross-country skiers training programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arnstein Sunde
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Jan-Michael Johansen
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Martin Gjøra
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Department of Technical and Motor Development, The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center, Oslo, Norway
| | - Morten Bråten
- Department of Technical and Motor Development, The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Helgerud
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine Trondheim, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Myworkout, Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Støren
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sagelv EH, Engseth TP, Pedersen S, Pettersen SA, Mathisen G, Heitmann KA, Welde B, Thomassen TO, Stöggl TL. Physiological Comparisons of Elite Male Visma Ski Classics and National Level Cross-Country Skiers During Uphill Treadmill Roller Skiing. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1523. [PMID: 30505276 PMCID: PMC6250767 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Longer distance cross-country ski (14–220 km) races such as the Visma Ski Classics (VSC) has recently gained attention in addition to the traditional Olympic distances (5–50 km) associated with cross-country (XC) skiing. These long-distance races are characterized by extensive use of the upper body while double poling (DP). While there is a substantial amount of research on Olympic distance XC skiing, the physiological capacities of VSC skiers has not yet been explored. We recruited seven elite male VSC skiers and seven well-trained national level male XC skiers to undergo three tests in the laboratory: (1) a one repetition maximum (1RM) strength test in a cable pulldown; (2) roller skiing tests on a treadmill (10.5% inclination) for determination of gross efficiency (GE) at submaximal speeds (8 and 10 km·h−1) in DP and diagonal stride (DS); (3) two ramp protocols to exhaustion (15% inclination, starting speed 7 km·h−1) in DP and DS for the assessment of peak and maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2peak and V.O2max), respectively. Compared with the national level XC skiers, the VSC skiers performed similar in the 1RM cable pulldown, displayed 12.2% higher GE in DP at 8 km·h−1 but did not display any difference at 10 km·h−1, and had lower blood lactate concentration and heart rate at both submaximal speeds. The VSC skiers had longer time to exhaustion compared with the national level XC skiers during the two ramp protocols in DS (18%) and in DP (29%). The V.O2max was 10% higher in DS compared with DP, with no differences between the groups. The V.O2peak/V.O2max-ratio of 90% did not differ between the two groups. In conclusion, the main differences were lower cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses at submaximal speeds as well as longer time to exhaustion in VSC skiers compared with national level XC skiers. This suggest efficiency to be the main difference between VSC and national level XC skiers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edvard H Sagelv
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tina P Engseth
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sigurd Pedersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Svein A Pettersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gunnar Mathisen
- Department of Teaching and Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Teaching, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kim A Heitmann
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tor O Thomassen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Thomas L Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research has shown that gross efficiency (GE) declines during high-intensity exercise, but the time course of recovery of GE after high-intensity exercise has not yet been investigated. PURPOSE To determine the time course of the recovery of GE after time trials (TTs) of different lengths. METHODS Nineteen trained male cyclists participated in this study. Before and after TTs of 2000 and 20,000 m, subjects performed submaximal exercise at 55% of the power output attained at maximal oxygen uptake (PVO2max). The postmeasurement continued until 30 min after the end of the TT, during which GE was determined over 3-min intervals. The magnitude-based-inferences approach was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS GE decreased substantially during the 2000-m and 20,000-m TTs (-11.8% [3.6%] and -6.2% [4.0%], respectively). A most likely and very likely recovery of GE was found during the first half of the submaximal exercise bout performed after the 2000-m, with only a possible increase in GE during the first part of the submaximal exercise bout performed after the 20,000-m. After both distances, GE did not fully recover to the initial pre-TT values, as the difference between the pre-TT value and average GE value of minutes 26-29 was still most likely negative for both the 2000- and 20,000-m (-6.1% [2.8%] and -7.0% [4.5%], respectively). CONCLUSIONS It is impossible to fully recover GE after TTs of 2000- or 20,000-m during 30 min of submaximal cycling exercise performed at an intensity of 55% PVO2max.
Collapse
|
19
|
Do Skiers with Similar Race Time but Different Age Pace Similarly in a Cross-Country Ski Marathon? Asian J Sports Med 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/asjsm.14474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
20
|
Pole lengths influence O 2-cost during double poling in highly trained cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 118:271-281. [PMID: 29196845 PMCID: PMC5767204 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3767-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Purpose In elite cross-country skiing, double poling is used in different terrain. This study compared O2-cost and kinematics during double poling with four different pole lengths [self-selected (SS), SS − 5 cm, SS + 5 cm, SS + 10 cm] at Low versus Moderate incline. Methods Thirteen highly trained male cross-country skiers (mean ± SD 23 ± 3 years; 182 ± 4 cm; 77 ± 6 kg) completed eight submaximal trials with roller skis on a treadmill at two conditions: “Low incline” (1.7°; 4.5 m s−1) and “Moderate incline” (4.5°; 2.5 m s−1) with each of the four pole lengths. O2-cost and 3D body kinematics were assessed in each trial. Results In Low incline, SS + 10 cm induced a lower O2-cost than all the other pole lengths [P < 0.05; effect size (ES) 0.5–0.8], whereas no differences were found between the remaining pole lengths (P > 0.05; ES 0.2–0.4). In Moderate incline, significant differences between all pole lengths were found for O2-cost, with SS − 5 cm > SS > SS + 5 cm > SS + 10 cm (P < 0.05; ES 0.6–1.8). The relative differences in O2-cost between SS and the other pole lengths were greater in Moderate incline than Low incline (SS − 5 cm; 1.5%, ES 0.8, SS + 5 cm; 1.3%, ES 1.0, and SS + 10 cm; 1.9%, ES 1.0, all P < 0.05). No difference was found in cycle, poling or reposition times between pole lengths. However, at both conditions a smaller total vertical displacement of center of mass was observed with SS + 10 cm compared to the other pole lengths. Conclusion Increasing pole length from SS − 5 cm to SS + 10 cm during double poling induced lower O2-cost and this advantage was greater in Moderate compared to Low incline. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00421-017-3767-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
|
21
|
Ørtenblad N, Jensen K. Gross efficiency predicts a 6-min double-poling ergometer performance in recreational cross-country skiers. SPORTS ENGINEERING 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12283-017-0249-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
22
|
Pellegrini B, Zoppirolli C, Boccia G, Bortolan L, Schena F. Cross-country skiing movement factorization to explore relationships between skiing economy and athletes' skills. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2017. [PMID: 28649805 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the relationships between the biomechanics of the double poling (DP) technique in cross-country skiing, its economy, and athletes' skill. To this aim, skiers' motion has been factorized into components through principal component analysis (PCA). Eight high-level (HL) and eight regional level (RL) male cross-country skiers performed a 5-minute submaximal DP trial while roller skiing on a treadmill at 14 km h-1 and 2° incline. Whole-body kinematics was recorded with a motion capture system. PCA was applied to markers coordinates to extract principal movements (PMk ), which were ranked by their variance. Energy cost (EC) of locomotion was calculated from ergospirometric measurements. Results showed that 96.7%±0.6% of total skiing pattern variance can be described with the first three PMk. (Shoulder and trunk flexion-extension are described PM1 and PM2 and elbow flexion-extension are mainly represented in PM2 and PM3. The variance of further components, consisting of residual movements (eg, slow postural changes or high-frequency vibrations), was greater for the RL than the HL skiers (4.0%±0.5% vs 2.6%±0.3%; P<.001) and was positively correlated with EC (R2 =.646; P<.001). PCA permitted to describe the biomechanics of the DP technique through a limited set of principal movements. Skiing skills and economy appeared to be related to a skier's ability to simplify movement complexity, suggesting that an efficient skier is better able to reduce superfluous movement components during DP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Pellegrini
- CeRiSM (Research Centre of Mountain Sport and Health), University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - C Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM (Research Centre of Mountain Sport and Health), University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - G Boccia
- CeRiSM (Research Centre of Mountain Sport and Health), University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.,NeuroMuscularFunction Research Group, School of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - L Bortolan
- CeRiSM (Research Centre of Mountain Sport and Health), University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - F Schena
- CeRiSM (Research Centre of Mountain Sport and Health), University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Gender differences in power production, energetic capacity and efficiency of elite cross‑country skiers during whole‑body, upper‑body, and arm poling. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 116:291-300. [PMID: 26476546 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3281-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterize gender differences in power output, energetic capacity and exercise efficiency during whole-body (WP), upper-body (UP), and arm poling (AP). METHODS Ten male and ten female elite cross-country skiers, matched for international performance level, completed three incremental submaximal tests and a 3-min self-paced performance test on a Concept2 SkiErg. Power output, cardiorespiratory and kinematic variables were monitored. Body composition was determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS The men demonstrated 87, 97 and 103% higher power output, and 51, 65 and 71% higher VO2peak (L min(−1)) than the women during WP, UP and AP, respectively, while utilizing ~10% more of their running VO2max in all modes (all P < 0.001). The men had 35, 38 and 59% more lean mass in the whole body, upper body and arms (all P < 0.001). The men exhibited greater shoulder and elbow extension at the start of poling and greater trunk flexion at the end of poling (all P < 0.05). The relationship between VO2 and power output did not differ between the men and women. CONCLUSIONS Gender differences in power production and peak aerobic capacity increased sequentially from WP to UP to AP, coinciding with a greater portion of the muscle mass in the arms of the men. Although the men and women employed each poling technique differently, the estimated efficiency of double poling was independent of gender.
Collapse
|
24
|
Sandbakk Ø, Losnegard T, Skattebo Ø, Hegge AM, Tønnessen E, Kocbach J. Analysis of Classical Time-Trial Performance and Technique-Specific Physiological Determinants in Elite Female Cross-Country Skiers. Front Physiol 2016; 7:326. [PMID: 27536245 PMCID: PMC4971020 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated the contribution of performance on uphill, flat, and downhill sections to overall performance in an international 10-km classical time-trial in elite female cross-country skiers, as well as the relationships between performance on snow and laboratory-measured physiological variables in the double poling (DP) and diagonal (DIA) techniques. Ten elite female cross-country skiers were continuously measured by a global positioning system device during an international 10-km cross-country skiing time-trial in the classical technique. One month prior to the race, all skiers performed a 5-min submaximal and 3-min self-paced performance test while roller skiing on a treadmill, both in the DP and DIA techniques. The time spent on uphill (r = 0.98) and flat (r = 0.91) sections of the race correlated most strongly with the overall 10-km performance (both p < 0.05). Approximately 56% of the racing time was spent uphill, and stepwise multiple regression revealed that uphill time explained 95.5% of the variance in overall performance (p < 0.001). Distance covered during the 3-min roller-skiing test and body-mass normalized peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in both techniques showed the strongest correlations with overall time-trial performance (r = 0.66–0.78), with DP capacity tending to have greatest impact on the flat and DIA capacity on uphill terrain (all p < 0.05). Our present findings reveal that the time spent uphill most strongly determine classical time-trial performance, and that the major portion of the performance differences among elite female cross-country skiers can be explained by variations in technique-specific aerobic power.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences Oslo, Norway
| | - Øyvind Skattebo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences Oslo, Norway
| | - Ann M Hegge
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Andersson E, Björklund G, Holmberg HC, Ørtenblad N. Energy system contributions and determinants of performance in sprint cross-country skiing. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 27:385-398. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Andersson
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - G. Björklund
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - H-C. Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Swedish Olympic Committee; Stockholm Sweden
| | - N. Ørtenblad
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics; SDU Muscle Research Cluster; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Carlsson T, Carlsson M, Hammarström D, Rønnestad BR, Malm CB, Tonkonogi M. Optimal [Formula: see text] ratio for predicting 15 km performance among elite male cross-country skiers. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:353-360. [PMID: 26719730 PMCID: PMC4689292 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s93174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was 1) to validate the 0.5 body-mass exponent for maximal. oxygen uptake [Formula: see text] as the optimal predictor of performance in a 15 km classical-technique skiing competition among elite male cross-country skiers and 2) to evaluate the influence of distance covered on the body-mass exponent for [Formula: see text] among elite male skiers. Twenty-four elite male skiers (age: 21.4±3.3 years [mean ± standard deviation]) completed an incremental treadmill roller-skiing test to determine their [Formula: see text]. Performance data were collected from a 15 km classical-technique cross-country skiing competition performed on a 5 km course. Power-function modeling (ie, an allometric scaling approach) was used to establish the optimal body-mass exponent for [Formula: see text] to predict the skiing performance. The optimal power-function models were found to be [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], which explained 69% and 81% of the variance in skiing speed, respectively. All the variables contributed to the models. Based on the validation results, it may be recommended that [Formula: see text] divided by the square root of body mass (mL · min(-1) · kg(-0.5)) should be used when elite male skiers' performance capability in 15 km classical-technique races is evaluated. Moreover, the body-mass exponent for [Formula: see text] was demonstrated to be influenced by the distance covered, indicating that heavier skiers have a more pronounced positive pacing profile (ie, race speed gradually decreasing throughout the race) compared to that of lighter skiers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- Sports Medicine Unit, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Magnus Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
- Sports Medicine Unit, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Daniel Hammarström
- The Lillehammer Research Center for Medicine and Exercise Physiology, Lillehammer University College, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Bent R Rønnestad
- The Lillehammer Research Center for Medicine and Exercise Physiology, Lillehammer University College, Lillehammer, Norway
| | | | - Michail Tonkonogi
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Zoppirolli C, Pellegrini B, Bortolan L, Schena F. Energetics and biomechanics of double poling in regional and high-level cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2014; 115:969-79. [PMID: 25515019 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-3078-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to evaluate the energetics and the biomechanics of double poling technique (DP) in two groups of cross-country skiers. METHODS Eight high-level (HLG) and eight regional-level (RLG) skiers performed a 5-min sub-maximal DP trial, roller skiing on a treadmill at 14 km h(-1) and 2°. Energetic cost (ECDP), center of mass (COM) vertical displacement range, body inclination (θ, i.e., the angle between the vertical line and the line passing through COM and a fixed pivot point identified at feet level) and mechanical work associated to COM motion were analyzed. Pole and joint kinematics, poling forces and cycle timing were also considered. RESULTS HLG showed lower ECDP than RLG, smaller COM vertical displacement range and mechanical work, whereas higher θ during the early part of the poling phase (P < 0.05). In HLG, pole inclination was higher, poling forces greater and cycle duration longer (P < 0.05). Considering all skiers, a forward multiple regression revealed that the maximum value of θ (θ max) and the minimum value of COM vertical displacement resulted the COM-related parameters that better predict ECDP (AdjR (2) = 0.734; P < 0.001). Moreover, θ max positively related to poling force integrals and cycle duration (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS A pronounced body inclination during the early poling phase and a reduced COM vertical displacement range concur in explaining the differences in ECDP found between the groups and among the skiers. A mechanically advantageous motion of COM during DP improves poling effectiveness, reduces cycle frequency and the mechanical work sustained.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM (Research Center Sport Mountain and Health), Via Matteo del Ben 5/b, Rovereto, 38068, Italy,
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
The decline in gross efficiency in relation to cycling time-trial length. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014; 10:64-70. [PMID: 24911784 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2014-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate whether gross efficiency (GE), determined during submaximal cycling, is lower after time trials and if the magnitude of the decrease differs in relation to race distance. Secondary purposes were to study the rate of the decline in GE and whether changes in muscle-fiber recruitment could explain the decline. METHODS Cyclists completed 9 GE tests consisting of submaximal exercise performed before and after time trials of different length (500 m, 1000 m, 2000 m, 4000 m, 15,000 m, and 40,000 m). In addition, subjects performed time trials as if they were a 1000-m, 4000-m, or 40,000-m time trial during which they were stopped at 50% of the final time of the preceding "full" time trial. Power output, gas exchange, and EMG were measured continuously throughout the GE tests. RESULTS A significant interaction effect between distance and time was found for GE (P = .001). GE was significantly lower immediately after the time trials than before (P < .05), and the decline in GE differed between distances (P < .001). GE seemed to decline linearly during the relatively short trials, while it declined more hyperbolically during the 40,000-m. A significant effect of time (P = .04) on mean EMG amplitude was found. However, post hoc comparisons showed no significant differences in mean EMG amplitude between the different time points (before and after the time trials). CONCLUSION GE decreases during time-trial exercise. Unfortunately, the cause of the decrease remains uncertain. Future modeling studies should consider using a declining instead of a constant GE. In sport situations, the declining GE has to be taken into account when selecting a pacing strategy.
Collapse
|
29
|
Ainegren M, Carlsson P, Laaksonen MS, Tinnsten M. The influence of grip on oxygen consumption and leg forces when using classical style roller skis. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2012; 24:301-10. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Ainegren
- Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - P. Carlsson
- Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - M. S. Laaksonen
- Department of Health Sciences; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - M. Tinnsten
- Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| |
Collapse
|