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Seo S, Bharmauria V, Schütz A, Yan X, Wang H, Crawford JD. Multiunit Frontal Eye Field Activity Codes the Visuomotor Transformation, But Not Gaze Prediction or Retrospective Target Memory, in a Delayed Saccade Task. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0413-23.2024. [PMID: 39054056 PMCID: PMC11373882 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0413-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Single-unit (SU) activity-action potentials isolated from one neuron-has traditionally been employed to relate neuronal activity to behavior. However, recent investigations have shown that multiunit (MU) activity-ensemble neural activity recorded within the vicinity of one microelectrode-may also contain accurate estimations of task-related neural population dynamics. Here, using an established model-fitting approach, we compared the spatial codes of SU response fields with corresponding MU response fields recorded from the frontal eye fields (FEFs) in head-unrestrained monkeys (Macaca mulatta) during a memory-guided saccade task. Overall, both SU and MU populations showed a simple visuomotor transformation: the visual response coded target-in-eye coordinates, transitioning progressively during the delay toward a future gaze-in-eye code in the saccade motor response. However, the SU population showed additional secondary codes, including a predictive gaze code in the visual response and retention of a target code in the motor response. Further, when SUs were separated into regular/fast spiking neurons, these cell types showed different spatial code progressions during the late delay period, only converging toward gaze coding during the final saccade motor response. Finally, reconstructing MU populations (by summing SU data within the same sites) failed to replicate either the SU or MU pattern. These results confirm the theoretical and practical potential of MU activity recordings as a biomarker for fundamental sensorimotor transformations (e.g., target-to-gaze coding in the oculomotor system), while also highlighting the importance of SU activity for coding more subtle (e.g., predictive/memory) aspects of sensorimotor behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serah Seo
- Centre for Vision Research and Centre for Integrative and Applied Neuroscience, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Vishal Bharmauria
- Centre for Vision Research and Centre for Integrative and Applied Neuroscience, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33606
| | - Adrian Schütz
- Department of Neurophysics, Philipps-Universität Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior - CMBB, Philipps-Universität Marburg, 35032 Marburg, and Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Xiaogang Yan
- Centre for Vision Research and Centre for Integrative and Applied Neuroscience, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Hongying Wang
- Centre for Vision Research and Centre for Integrative and Applied Neuroscience, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - J Douglas Crawford
- Centre for Vision Research and Centre for Integrative and Applied Neuroscience, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
- Departments of Psychology, Biology, Kinesiology & Health Sciences, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
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2
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Yao T, Vanduffel W. Conflict detection and resolution in macaque frontal eye fields. Commun Biol 2024; 7:119. [PMID: 38263256 PMCID: PMC10805886 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-05800-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Stimulus-induced conflicts in decision-making tasks produce both behavioral and neuronal congruency effects. However, how and when conflicts are detected and resolved at the neuronal level remains largely unclear. To address these issues, we recorded from single neurons in the frontal eye fields of two macaques performing a conflict task. Although the temporal dynamics of the neuronal congruency effects are independent of the specific task rules, they are substantially different in target- and distractor-encoding neurons. Conflicts were detected ~100 ms after the conflict-inducing cue (20-30 ms after the visual response), which is much faster than predicted based on human EEG results. This suggests that conflict detection relies on a fast mechanism in frontal eye fields. Resolving the conflict at the neuronal level, however, requires between <400 ms to ~1000 ms, and shows profound interindividual differences and depends on task rules, indicating that it is a more complex and top-down driven process. Our findings illuminate the neuronal mechanisms underlying decision-making when a conflict is present, a crucial cognitive process playing a role in basic survival and high-level cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yao
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02144, USA.
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3
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Shams M, Thier P, Lomber SG, Merrikhi Y. Resilience of FEF neuronal saccade code to V4 perturbations. J Neurophysiol 2023; 130:1243-1251. [PMID: 37850785 PMCID: PMC10994545 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00056.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The frontal eye field (FEF) plays a key role in initiating rapid eye movements known as saccades. Accumulation models have been proposed to explain the dynamic of these neurons and how they may enable the initiation of saccades. To update the scope of the viability of this model, we studied single neurons recorded from the FEF of two rhesus monkeys while they performed a memory-guided saccade task. We evaluated the degree to which each type of FEF neuron complied with these models by quantifying how precisely their discharge predicted an imminent saccade based on their immediate presaccadic activity. We found that decoders trained on single neurons with a stronger motor component performed better than decoders trained on neurons with a stronger visual component in predicting the saccade. Importantly, despite a dramatic effect on the reaction times, the perturbations delivered to the FEF neurons via area V4 did not impact their saccade predictability. Our results demonstrate a high degree of resilience of the FEF neuronal presaccadic discharge patterns, fulfilling the predictions of accumulation models.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We studied neurons in the brain's frontal eye field (FEF) to understand how these neurons predict swift eye shifts called saccades. We found that neurons with more movement-related activity were better at predicting saccades than those with sensory-related activity. Interestingly, electrical disruptions of this region strongly impacted saccade onset times but did not affect the individual neuron's saccade predictability, consistent with models suggesting that a specific threshold in neural activity triggers the saccade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shams
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter Thier
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephen G Lomber
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Yaser Merrikhi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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4
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Funahashi S, Gao B, Takeda K, Watanabe Y, Wu J, Yan T. Individual prefrontal neurons contribute to sensory-to-motor information transformation by rotating reference frames during spatial working memory performance. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:10258-10271. [PMID: 37557911 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Performing working memory tasks correctly requires not only the temporary maintenance of information but also the visual-to-motor transformation of information. Although sustained delay-period activity is known to be a mechanism for temporarily maintaining information, the mechanism for information transformation is not well known. An analysis using a population of delay-period activities recorded from prefrontal neurons visualized a gradual change of maintained information from sensory to motor as the delay period progressed. However, the contributions of individual prefrontal neurons to this process are not known. In the present study, we used a version of the delayed-response task, in which monkeys needed to make a saccade 90o clockwise from a visual cue after a 3-s delay, and examined the temporal change in the preferred directions of delay-period activity during the delay period for individual neurons. One group of prefrontal neurons encoded the cue direction by a retinotopic reference frame and either maintained it throughout the delay period or rotated it 90o counterclockwise to adjust visual information to saccade information, whereas other groups of neurons encoded the cue direction by a saccade-based reference frame and rotated it 90o clockwise. The results indicate that visual-to-motor information transformation is achieved by manipulating the reference frame to adjust visual coordinates to motor coordinates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shintaro Funahashi
- Advanced Research Institute for Multidisciplinary Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing 100018, People's Republic of China
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing 100018, People's Republic of China
- Department of Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences, Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Binbin Gao
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing 100018, People's Republic of China
| | - Kazuyoshi Takeda
- Department of Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences, Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yumiko Watanabe
- Department of Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences, Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Jinglong Wu
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing 100018, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianyi Yan
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing 100018, People's Republic of China
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Bedini M, Olivetti E, Avesani P, Baldauf D. Accurate localization and coactivation profiles of the frontal eye field and inferior frontal junction: an ALE and MACM fMRI meta-analysis. Brain Struct Funct 2023; 228:997-1017. [PMID: 37093304 PMCID: PMC10147761 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-023-02641-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
The frontal eye field (FEF) and the inferior frontal junction (IFJ) are prefrontal structures involved in mediating multiple aspects of goal-driven behavior. Despite being recognized as prominent nodes of the networks underlying spatial attention and oculomotor control, and working memory and cognitive control, respectively, the limited quantitative evidence on their precise localization has considerably impeded the detailed understanding of their structure and connectivity. In this study, we performed an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) fMRI meta-analysis by selecting studies that employed standard paradigms to accurately infer the localization of these regions in stereotaxic space. For the FEF, we found the highest spatial convergence of activations for prosaccade and antisaccade paradigms at the junction of the precentral sulcus and superior frontal sulcus. For the IFJ, we found consistent activations across oddball/attention, working memory, task-switching and Stroop paradigms at the junction of the inferior precentral sulcus and inferior frontal sulcus. We related these clusters to previous meta-analyses, sulcal/gyral neuroanatomy, and a comprehensive brain parcellation, highlighting important differences compared to their results and taxonomy. Finally, we leveraged the ALE peak coordinates as seeds to perform a meta-analytic connectivity modeling (MACM) analysis, which revealed systematic coactivation patterns spanning the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices. We decoded the behavioral domains associated with these coactivations, suggesting that these may allow FEF and IFJ to support their specialized roles in flexible behavior. Our study provides the meta-analytic groundwork for investigating the relationship between functional specialization and connectivity of two crucial control structures of the prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Bedini
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy.
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, McGill Hall 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0109, USA.
| | - Emanuele Olivetti
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy
- NILab, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy
| | - Paolo Avesani
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy
- NILab, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy
| | - Daniel Baldauf
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Via delle Regole 101, 38123, Trento, Italy
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6
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Yao T, Vanduffel W. Spike rates of frontal eye field neurons predict reaction times in a spatial attention task. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112384. [PMID: 37043349 PMCID: PMC10157294 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Which neuronal signal(s) predict reaction times when subjects respond to a target at covertly attended locations? Although recent studies showed that spike rates are not predictive, it remains a highly contested question. Therefore, we record single-unit activity from frontal eye field (FEF) neurons while macaques are performing a covert spatial attention task. We find that the attentional modulation of spike rates of FEF neurons is strongly correlated with behavioral reaction times. Moreover, this correlation already emerges 1 s before target dimming, which triggers the behavioral responses. This prediction of reaction times by spike rates is found in neurons showing attention-dependent enhanced and suppressed activity for targets and distractors, respectively, yet in varying degrees across subjects. Thus, spike rates of FEF neurons can predict reaction times persistently and well before the operant behavior during selective attention tasks. Such long prediction windows will be useful for developing spike-based brain-machine interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yao
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02144, USA.
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7
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Lowe KA, Zinke W, Cosman JD, Schall JD. Frontal eye fields in macaque monkeys: prefrontal and premotor contributions to visually guided saccades. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:5083-5107. [PMID: 35176752 PMCID: PMC9989351 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal spiking was sampled from the frontal eye field (FEF) and from the rostral part of area 6 that reaches to the superior limb of the arcuate sulcus, dorsal to the arcuate spur when present (F2vr) in macaque monkeys performing memory-guided saccades and visually guided saccades for visual search. Neuronal spiking modulation in F2vr resembled that in FEF in many but not all respects. A new consensus clustering algorithm of neuronal modulation patterns revealed that F2vr and FEF contain a greater variety of modulation patterns than previously reported. The areas differ in the proportions of visuomotor neuron types, the proportions of neurons discriminating a target from distractors during visual search, and the consistency of modulation patterns across tasks. However, between F2vr and FEF we found no difference in the magnitude of delay period activity, the timing of the peak discharge rate relative to saccades, or the time of search target selection. The observed similarities and differences between the 2 cortical regions contribute to other work establishing the organization of eye fields in the frontal lobe and may help explain why FEF in monkeys is identified within granular prefrontal area 8 but in humans is identified within agranular premotor area 6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaleb A Lowe
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
| | - Wolf Zinke
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
| | - Joshua D Cosman
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
| | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
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8
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Do we understand the prefrontal cortex? Brain Struct Funct 2022:10.1007/s00429-022-02587-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02587-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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9
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Kaneko T, Komatsu M, Yamamori T, Ichinohe N, Okano H. Cortical neural dynamics unveil the rhythm of natural visual behavior in marmosets. Commun Biol 2022; 5:108. [PMID: 35115680 PMCID: PMC8814246 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03052-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that the visual system consists of functionally distinct ventral and dorsal streams; however, its exact spatial-temporal dynamics during natural visual behavior remain to be investigated. Here, we report cerebral neural dynamics during active visual exploration recorded by an electrocorticographic array covering the entire lateral surface of the marmoset cortex. We found that the dorsal stream was activated before the primary visual cortex with saccades and followed by the alteration of suppression and activation signals along the ventral stream. Similarly, the signal that propagated from the dorsal to ventral visual areas was accompanied by a travelling wave of low frequency oscillations. Such signal dynamics occurred at an average of 220 ms after saccades, which corresponded to the timing when whole-brain activation returned to background levels. We also demonstrated that saccades could occur at any point of signal flow, indicating the parallel computation of motor commands. Overall, this study reveals the neural dynamics of active vision, which are efficiently linked to the natural rhythms of visual exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takaaki Kaneko
- Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan. .,Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Misako Komatsu
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Yamamori
- Laboratory for Molecular Analysis of Higher Brain Function, Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, Saitama, Japan
| | - Noritaka Ichinohe
- Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan. .,Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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10
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Westerberg JA, Sigworth EA, Schall JD, Maier A. Pop-out search instigates beta-gated feature selectivity enhancement across V4 layers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2103702118. [PMID: 34893538 PMCID: PMC8685673 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2103702118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual search is a workhorse for investigating how attention interacts with processing of sensory information. Attentional selection has been linked to altered cortical sensory responses and feature preferences (i.e., tuning). However, attentional modulation of feature selectivity during search is largely unexplored. Here we map the spatiotemporal profile of feature selectivity during singleton search. Monkeys performed a search where a pop-out feature determined the target of attention. We recorded laminar neural responses from visual area V4. We first identified "feature columns" which showed preference for individual colors. In the unattended condition, feature columns were significantly more selective in superficial relative to middle and deep layers. Attending a stimulus increased selectivity in all layers but not equally. Feature selectivity increased most in the deep layers, leading to higher selectivity in extragranular layers as compared to the middle layer. This attention-induced enhancement was rhythmically gated in phase with the beta-band local field potential. Beta power dominated both extragranular laminar compartments, but current source density analysis pointed to an origin in superficial layers, specifically. While beta-band power was present regardless of attentional state, feature selectivity was only gated by beta in the attended condition. Neither the beta oscillation nor its gating of feature selectivity varied with microsaccade production. Importantly, beta modulation of neural activity predicted response times, suggesting a direct link between attentional gating and behavioral output. Together, these findings suggest beta-range synaptic activation in V4's superficial layers rhythmically gates attentional enhancement of feature tuning in a way that affects the speed of attentional selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Westerberg
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240;
| | | | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Centre for Vision Research, Vision: Science to Applications Program, Department of Biology and Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Alexander Maier
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240
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11
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Yuan G, Liu G, Wei D. Roles of P300 and Late Positive Potential in Initial Romantic Attraction. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:718847. [PMID: 34720856 PMCID: PMC8552996 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.718847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Initial romantic attraction (IRA) refers to a series of positive reactions to potential romantic partners at the initial encounter; it evolved to promote mate selection, allowing individuals to focus their mating efforts on their preferred potential mates. After decades of effort, we now have a deeper understanding of the evolutionary value and dominant factors of IRA; however, little is known regarding the brain mechanisms related to its generation and evaluation. In this study, we combined classic event-related potential analysis with dipole-source analysis to examine electroencephalogram (EEG) signals generated while participants assessed their romantic interest in potential partners. The EEG signals were categorized into IRA-engendered and unengendered conditions based on behavioral indicators. We found that the faces elicited multiple late positivities, including P300 over the occipital-parietal regions and late positive potentials (LPPs) over the anterior regions. When compared to faces that did not engender IRA, faces that did engender IRA elicited (1) enhanced P300 over the parietal regions and heightened neural activity in the insula and cingulate cortex and (2) larger LPPs over the anterior regions and heightened neural activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, frontal eye field, visual cortex, and insula. These results suggest IRA is generated and evaluated by an extensive brain network involved in emotion processing, attention control, and social evaluations. Furthermore, these findings indicate that P300 and LPP may represent different cognitive processes during IRA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangjie Yuan
- College of Electronic and Information Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Chongqing, China
- Institute of Affective Computing and Information Processing, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Circuits and Intelligent Information Processing, Chongqing, China
| | - Guangyuan Liu
- College of Electronic and Information Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Chongqing, China
- Institute of Affective Computing and Information Processing, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Circuits and Intelligent Information Processing, Chongqing, China
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Dongtao Wei
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China
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12
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Piette C, Vandecasteele M, Bosch-Bouju C, Goubard V, Paillé V, Cui Y, Mendes A, Perez S, Valtcheva S, Xu H, Pouget P, Venance L. Intracellular Properties of Deep-Layer Pyramidal Neurons in Frontal Eye Field of Macaque Monkeys. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2021; 13:725880. [PMID: 34621162 PMCID: PMC8490863 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2021.725880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although many details remain unknown, several positive statements can be made about the laminar distribution of primate frontal eye field (FEF) neurons with different physiological properties. Most certainly, pyramidal neurons in the deep layer of FEF that project to the brainstem carry movement and fixation signals but clear evidence also support that at least some deep-layer pyramidal neurons projecting to the superior colliculus carry visual responses. Thus, deep-layer neurons in FEF are functionally heterogeneous. Despite the useful functional distinctions between neuronal responses in vivo, the underlying existence of distinct cell types remain uncertain, mostly due to methodological limitations of extracellular recordings in awake behaving primates. To substantiate the functionally defined cell types encountered in the deep layer of FEF, we measured the biophysical properties of pyramidal neurons recorded intracellularly in brain slices issued from macaque monkey biopsies. Here, we found that biophysical properties recorded in vitro permit us to distinguish two main subtypes of regular-spiking neurons, with, respectively, low-resistance and low excitability vs. high-resistance and strong excitability. These results provide useful constraints for cognitive models of visual attention and saccade production by indicating that at least two distinct populations of deep-layer neurons exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Piette
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Marie Vandecasteele
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Clémentine Bosch-Bouju
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Goubard
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Paillé
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Yihui Cui
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Mendes
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Perez
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Silvana Valtcheva
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Hao Xu
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Pouget
- INSERM, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Venance
- Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), College de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, France
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13
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Abstract
Remapping is a property of some cortical and subcortical neurons that update their responses around the time of an eye movement to account for the shift of stimuli on the retina due to the saccade. Physiologically, remapping is traditionally tested by briefly presenting a single stimulus around the time of the saccade and looking at the onset of the response and the locations in space to which the neuron is responsive. Here we suggest that a better way to understand the functional role of remapping is to look at the time at which the neural signal emerges when saccades are made across a stable scene. Based on data obtained using this approach, we suggest that remapping in the lateral intraparietal area is sufficient to play a role in maintaining visual stability across saccades, whereas in the frontal eye field, remapped activity carries information that affects future saccadic choices and, in a separate subset of neurons, is used to maintain a map of locations in the scene that have been previously fixated.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Bisley
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Jules Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Psychology and the Brain Research Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Koorosh Mirpour
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yelda Alkan
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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14
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Li HH, Pan J, Carrasco M. Different computations underlie overt presaccadic and covert spatial attention. Nat Hum Behav 2021; 5:1418-1431. [PMID: 33875838 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01099-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Perception and action are tightly coupled: visual responses at the saccade target are enhanced right before saccade onset. This phenomenon, presaccadic attention, is a form of overt attention-deployment of visual attention with concurrent eye movements. Presaccadic attention is well-documented, but its underlying computational process remains unknown. This is in stark contrast to covert attention-deployment of visual attention without concurrent eye movements-for which the computational processes are well characterized by a normalization model. Here, a series of psychophysical experiments reveal that presaccadic attention modulates visual performance only via response gain changes. A response gain change was observed even when attention field size increased, violating the predictions of a normalization model of attention. Our empirical results and model comparisons reveal that the perceptual modulations by overt presaccadic and covert spatial attention are mediated through different computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Hung Li
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA. .,Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Jasmine Pan
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marisa Carrasco
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA.,Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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15
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Lowe KA, Zinke W, Phipps MA, Cosman J, Maddox M, Schall JD, Caskey CF. Visuomotor Transformations Are Modulated by Focused Ultrasound over Frontal Eye Field. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2021; 47:679-692. [PMID: 33341303 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Neuromodulation with focused ultrasound (FUS) is being widely explored as a non-invasive tool to stimulate focal brain regions because of its superior spatial resolution and coverage compared with other neuromodulation methods. The precise effects of FUS stimulation on specific regions of the brain are not yet fully understood. Here, we characterized the behavioral effects of FUS stimulation directly applied through a craniotomy over the macaque frontal eye field (FEF). In macaque monkeys making directed eye movements to perform visual search tasks with direct or arbitrary responses, focused ultrasound was applied through a craniotomy over the FEF. Saccade response times (RTs) and error rates were determined for trials without or with FUS stimulation with pulses at a peak negative pressure of either 250 or 425 kPa. Both RTs and error rates were affected by FUS. Responses toward a target located contralateral to the FUS stimulation were approximately 3 ms slower in the presence of FUS in both monkeys studied, while only one exhibited a slowing of responses for ipsilateral targets. Error rates were lower in one monkey in this study. In another search task requiring making eye movements toward a target (pro-saccades) or in the opposite direction (anti-saccades), the RT for pro-saccades increased in the presence of FUS stimulation. Our results indicate the effectiveness of FUS to modulate saccadic responses when stimulating FEF in awake, behaving non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaleb A Lowe
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Wolf Zinke
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - M Anthony Phipps
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Institute of Imaging Science, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Josh Cosman
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Micala Maddox
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Charles F Caskey
- Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Institute of Imaging Science, Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
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16
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Abstract
Selective attention affords scrutinizing items in our environment. However, attentional selection changes over time and across space. Empirically, repetition of visual search conditions changes attentional processing. Priming of pop-out is a vivid example. Repeatedly searching for the same pop-out search feature is accomplished with faster response times and fewer errors. We review the psychophysical background of priming of pop-out, focusing on the hypothesis that it arises through changes in visual selective attention. We also describe research done with macaque monkeys to understand the neural mechanisms supporting visual selective attention and priming of pop-out, and survey research on priming of pop-out using noninvasive brain measures with humans. We conclude by hypothesizing three alternative neural mechanisms and highlighting open questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Westerberg
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, 111 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA.
| | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, 111 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
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17
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Sajad A, Sadeh M, Crawford JD. Spatiotemporal transformations for gaze control. Physiol Rep 2020; 8:e14533. [PMID: 32812395 PMCID: PMC7435051 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensorimotor transformations require spatiotemporal coordination of signals, that is, through both time and space. For example, the gaze control system employs signals that are time-locked to various sensorimotor events, but the spatial content of these signals is difficult to assess during ordinary gaze shifts. In this review, we describe the various models and methods that have been devised to test this question, and their limitations. We then describe a new method that can (a) simultaneously test between all of these models during natural, head-unrestrained conditions, and (b) track the evolving spatial continuum from target (T) to future gaze coding (G, including errors) through time. We then summarize some applications of this technique, comparing spatiotemporal coding in the primate frontal eye field (FEF) and superior colliculus (SC). The results confirm that these areas preferentially encode eye-centered, effector-independent parameters, and show-for the first time in ordinary gaze shifts-a spatial transformation between visual and motor responses from T to G coding. We introduce a new set of spatial models (T-G continuum) that revealed task-dependent timing of this transformation: progressive during a memory delay between vision and action, and almost immediate without such a delay. We synthesize the results from our studies and supplement it with previous knowledge of anatomy and physiology to propose a conceptual model where cumulative transformation noise is realized as inaccuracies in gaze behavior. We conclude that the spatiotemporal transformation for gaze is both local (observed within and across neurons in a given area) and distributed (with common signals shared across remote but interconnected structures).
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirsaman Sajad
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Psychology DepartmentVanderbilt UniversityNashvilleTNUSA
| | - Morteza Sadeh
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Department of NeurosurgeryUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoILUSA
| | - John Douglas Crawford
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Vision: Science to Applications Program (VISTA)Neuroscience Graduate Diploma ProgramDepartments of Psychology, Biology, Kinesiology & Health SciencesYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
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18
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Westerberg JA, Maier A, Schall JD. Priming of Attentional Selection in Macaque Visual Cortex: Feature-Based Facilitation and Location-Based Inhibition of Return. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0466-19.2020. [PMID: 32229500 PMCID: PMC7189490 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0466-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual search performance varies with stimulus and response history. Priming of pop-out refers to increased accuracy and reduced response time with repeated presentation of particular singleton and distractor features (e.g., a red target among green distractor stimuli), which are abruptly impaired when singleton and distractor features swap (e.g., green target among red distractors). Meanwhile, inhibition of return refers to the slowing of response time when target location repeats. Neurophysiological correlates of both these phenomena have been reported in the frontal eye field (FEF), an area in the frontal lobe contributing to attentional selection and eye movement planning. To understand the mechanistic origin of these adaptive behaviors, we investigated visual cortical area V4, an area providing input to and receiving feedback from FEF, during feature-based priming of pop-out and location-based inhibition of return. Performing a color pop-out task, monkeys exhibited pronounced priming of pop-out and inhibition of return. Neural spiking from V4 revealed earlier target selection associated with priming of pop-out and delayed selection associated with inhibition of return. These results demonstrate substantial involvement of extrastriate visual cortex in behavioral priming and inhibition of return.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Westerberg
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37240
| | - Alexander Maier
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37240
| | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37240
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19
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Mastropasqua A, Dowsett J, Dieterich M, Taylor PCJ. Right frontal eye field has perceptual and oculomotor functions during optokinetic stimulation and nystagmus. J Neurophysiol 2019; 123:571-586. [PMID: 31875488 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00468.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The right frontal eye field (rFEF) is associated with visual perception and eye movements. rFEF is activated during optokinetic nystagmus (OKN), a reflex that moves the eye in response to visual motion (optokinetic stimulation, OKS). It remains unclear whether rFEF plays causal perceptual and/or oculomotor roles during OKS and OKN. To test this, participants viewed a leftward-moving visual scene of vertical bars and judged whether a flashed dot was moving. Single pulses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) were applied to rFEF on half of trials. In half of blocks, to explore oculomotor control, participants performed an OKN in response to the OKS. rFEF TMS, during OKN, made participants more accurate on trials when the dot was still, and it slowed eye movements. In separate blocks, participants fixated during OKS. This not only controlled for eye movements but also allowed the use of EEG to explore the FEF's role in visual motion discrimination. In these blocks, by contrast, leftward dot motion discrimination was impaired, associated with a disruption of the frontal-posterior balance in alpha-band oscillations. None of these effects occurred in a control site (M1) experiment. These results demonstrate multiple related yet dissociable causal roles of the right FEF during optokinetic stimulation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study demonstrates causal roles of the right frontal eye field (FEF) in motion discrimination and eye movement control during visual scene motion: previous work had only examined other stimuli and eye movements such as saccades. Using combined transcranial magnetic stimulation and EEG and a novel optokinetic stimulation motion-discrimination task, we find evidence for multiple related yet dissociable causal roles within the FEF: perceptual processing during optokinetic stimulation, generation of the optokinetic nystagmus, and the maintenance of alpha oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Mastropasqua
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - James Dowsett
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany
| | - Marianne Dieterich
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, LMU Munich, Germany.,SyNergy - Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
| | - Paul C J Taylor
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, LMU Munich, Germany
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20
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Schall JD. Accumulators, Neurons, and Response Time. Trends Neurosci 2019; 42:848-860. [PMID: 31704180 PMCID: PMC6981279 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2019.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The marriage of cognitive neurophysiology and mathematical psychology to understand decision-making has been exceptionally productive. This interdisciplinary area is based on the proposition that particular neurons or circuits instantiate the accumulation of evidence specified by mathematical models of sequential sampling and stochastic accumulation. This linking proposition has earned widespread endorsement. Here, a brief survey of the history of the proposition precedes a review of multiple conundrums and paradoxes concerning the accuracy, precision, and transparency of that linking proposition. Correctly establishing how abstract models of decision-making are instantiated by particular neural circuits would represent a remarkable accomplishment in mapping mind to brain. Failing would reveal challenging limits for cognitive neuroscience. This is such a vigorous area of research because so much is at stake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D Schall
- Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, and Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
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21
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Lowe KA, Reppert TR, Schall JD. Selective Influence and Sequential Operations: A Research Strategy for Visual Search. VISUAL COGNITION 2019; 27:387-415. [PMID: 32982561 PMCID: PMC7518653 DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2019.1659896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We discuss the problem of elucidating mechanisms of visual search. We begin by considering the history, logic, and methods of relating behavioral or cognitive processes with neural processes. We then survey briefly the cognitive neurophysiology of visual search and essential aspects of the neural circuitry supporting this capacity. We introduce conceptually and empirically a powerful but underutilized experimental approach to dissect the cognitive processes supporting performance of a visual search task with factorial manipulations of singleton-distractor identifiability and stimulus-response cue discriminability. We show that systems factorial technology can distinguish processing architectures from the performance of macaque monkeys. This demonstration offers new opportunities to distinguish neural mechanisms through selective manipulation of visual encoding, search selection, rule encoding, and stimulus-response mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaleb A Lowe
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
| | - Thomas R Reppert
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
| | - Jeffrey D Schall
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center
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