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Ninham BW, Battye MJ, Bolotskova PN, Gerasimov RY, Kozlov VA, Bunkin NF. Nafion: New and Old Insights into Structure and Function. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:2214. [PMID: 37177360 PMCID: PMC10181149 DOI: 10.3390/polym15092214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The work reports a number of results on the dynamics of swelling and inferred nanostructure of the ion-exchange polymer membrane Nafion in different aqueous solutions. The techniques used were photoluminescent and Fourier transform IR (FTIR) spectroscopy. The centers of photoluminescence were identified as the sulfonic groups localized at the ends of the perfluorovinyl ether (Teflon) groups that form the backbone of Nafion. Changes in deuterium content of water induced unexpected results revealed in the process of polymer swelling. In these experiments, deionized (DI) water (deuterium content 157 ppm) and deuterium depleted water (DDW) with deuterium content 3 PPM, were investigated. The strong hydration of sulfonic groups involves a competition between ortho- and para-magnetic forms of a water molecule. Deuterium, as it seems, adsorbs competitively on the sulfonic groups and thus can change the geometry of the sulfate bonds. With photoluminescent spectroscopy experiments, this is reflected in the unwinding of the polymer fibers into the bulk of the adjoining water on swelling. The unwound fibers do not tear off from the polymer substrate. They form a vastly extended "brush" type structure normal to the membrane surface. This may have implications for specificity of ion transport in biology, where the ubiquitous glycocalyx of cells and tissues invariably involves highly sulfated polymers such asheparan and chondroitin sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry W. Ninham
- Department of Materials Physics, Research School of Physics, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia
| | | | - Polina N. Bolotskova
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Rostislav Yu. Gerasimov
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Valery A. Kozlov
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Nikolai F. Bunkin
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2-nd Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
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2
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Physicochemical characterization of green sodium oleate-based formulations. Part 2. Effect of anions. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 617:399-408. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.01.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Cryogenic Electron Microscopy Methodologies as Analytical Tools for the Study of Self-Assembled Pharmaceutics. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13071015. [PMID: 34371706 PMCID: PMC8308931 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13071015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many pharmaceutics are aqueous dispersions of small or large molecules, often self-assembled in complexes from a few to hundreds of molecules. In many cases, the dispersing liquid is non-aqueous. Many pharmaceutical preparations are very viscous. The efficacy of those dispersions is in many cases a function of the nanostructure of those complexes or aggregates. To study the nanostructure of those systems, one needs electron microscopy, the only way to obtain nanostructural information by recording direct images whose interpretation is not model-dependent. However, these methodologies are complicated by the need to make liquid systems compatible with high vacuum in electron microscopes. There are also issues related to the interaction of the electron beam with the specimen such as micrograph contrast, electron beam radiation damage, and artifacts associated with specimen preparation. In this article, which is focused on the state of the art of imaging self-assembled complexes, we briefly describe cryogenic temperature transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and cryogenic temperature scanning electron microcopy (cryo-SEM). We present the principles of these methodologies, give examples of their applications as analytical tools for pharmaceutics, and list their limitations and ways to avoid pitfalls in their application.
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Gradzielski M, Duvail M, de Molina PM, Simon M, Talmon Y, Zemb T. Using Microemulsions: Formulation Based on Knowledge of Their Mesostructure. Chem Rev 2021; 121:5671-5740. [PMID: 33955731 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Microemulsions, as thermodynamically stable mixtures of oil, water, and surfactant, are known and have been studied for more than 70 years. However, even today there are still quite a number of unclear aspects, and more recent research work has modified and extended our picture. This review gives a short overview of how the understanding of microemulsions has developed, the current view on their properties and structural features, and in particular, how they are related to applications. We also discuss more recent developments regarding nonclassical microemulsions such as surfactant-free (ultraflexible) microemulsions or ones containing uncommon solvents or amphiphiles (like antagonistic salts). These new findings challenge to some extent our previous understanding of microemulsions, which therefore has to be extended to look at the different types of microemulsions in a unified way. In particular, the flexibility of the amphiphilic film is the key property to classify different microemulsion types and their properties in this review. Such a classification of microemulsions requires a thorough determination of their structural properties, and therefore, the experimental methods to determine microemulsion structure and dynamics are reviewed briefly, with a particular emphasis on recent developments in the field of direct imaging by means of electron microscopy. Based on this classification of microemulsions, we then discuss their applications, where the application demands have to be met by the properties of the microemulsion, which in turn are controlled by the flexibility of their amphiphilic interface. Another frequently important aspect for applications is the control of the rheological properties. Normally, microemulsions are low viscous and therefore enhancing viscosity has to be achieved by either having high concentrations (often not wished for) or additives, which do not significantly interfere with the microemulsion. Accordingly, this review gives a comprehensive account of the properties of microemulsions, including most recent developments and bringing them together from a united viewpoint, with an emphasis on how this affects the way of formulating microemulsions for a given application with desired properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Gradzielski
- Stranski-Laboratorium für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Magali Duvail
- ICSM, Université Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, 30207 Marcoule, France
| | - Paula Malo de Molina
- Centro de Física de Materiales (CFM) (CSIC-UPV/EHU)-Materials Physics Center (MPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, 20018 San Sebastián, Spain.,IKERBASQUE - Basque Foundation for Science, María Díaz de Haro 3, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Miriam Simon
- Stranski-Laboratorium für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10623 Berlin, Germany.,Department of Chemical Engineering and the Russell Berrie Nanotechnolgy Inst. (RBNI), Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, IL-3200003, Israel
| | - Yeshayahu Talmon
- Department of Chemical Engineering and the Russell Berrie Nanotechnolgy Inst. (RBNI), Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, IL-3200003, Israel
| | - Thomas Zemb
- Stranski-Laboratorium für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10623 Berlin, Germany.,ICSM, Université Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, 30207 Marcoule, France
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5
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Abstract
Cryogenic-temperature transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) of aqueous systems has become a widely used methodology, especially in the study of biological systems and synthetic aqueous systems, such as amphiphile and polymer solutions. Cryogenic-temperature scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), while not as widely used as cryo-TEM, is also found in many laboratories of basic and applied research. The application of these methodologies, referred to collectively as cryogenic-temperature electron microscopy (cryo-EM) for direct nanostructural studies of nonaqueous liquid systems is much more limited, although such systems are important in basic research and are found in a very large spectrum of commercial applications. The study of nonaqueous liquid systems by cryo-EM poses many technical challenges. Specimen preparation under controlled conditions of air saturation around the specimen cannot be performed by the currently available commercial system, and the most effective cryogen, freezing ethane, cannot be used for most such liquid systems. Imaging is often complicated by low micrograph contrast and high sensitivity of the specimens to the electron beam.At the beginning of this Account, we describe the basic principles of cryo-EM, emphasizing factors that are essential for successful direct imaging by cryo-TEM and cryo-SEM. We discuss the peculiarities of nonaqueous liquid nanostructured systems when studied with these methodologies and how the technical difficulties in imaging nonaqueous systems, from oil-based to strong acid-based liquids, have been overcome, and the applicability of cryo-TEM and cryo-SEM has been expanded in recent years. Modern cryo-EM has been advanced by a number of instrumental developments, which we describe. In the TEM, these include improved electron field emission guns (FEGs) and microscope optics, the Volta phase plate to enhance image contrast by converting phase differences to amplitude differences without the loss of resolution by an objective lens strong underfocus, and highly sensitive image cameras that allow the recording of TEM images with minimal electron exposure. In the SEM, we take advantage of improved FEGs that allow imaging at a low (around 1 kV) electron acceleration voltage that is essential for high-resolution imaging and for avoiding specimen charging of uncoated nonconductive specimens, better optics, and a variety of sensitive detectors that have considerably improved resolution and, under the proper conditions, give excellent contrast even between elements quite close on the periodic table of the elements, such as the most important oxygen and carbon atoms.Finally we present and analyze several examples from our recent studies, which illustrate the issues presented above, including the remarkable progress made in recent years in this field and the strength and applicability of cryo-EM methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asia Matatyaho Ya’akobi
- Department of Chemical Engineering and the Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute (RBNI), Technion─Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Yeshayahu Talmon
- Department of Chemical Engineering and the Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute (RBNI), Technion─Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
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Morrison ED, Guo M, Maia J, Nelson D, Swaminathan S, Kandimalla KK, Lee H, Zasadzinski J, McCormick A, Marti J, Garhofer B. Dense nanolipid fluid dispersions comprising ibuprofen: Single step extrusion process and drug properties. Int J Pharm 2021; 598:120289. [PMID: 33556488 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Dense nanolipid fluid (DNLF) dispersions are highly concentrated aqueous dispersions of lipid nanocarriers (LNCs) with more than 1015 lipid particles per cubic centimeter. Descriptions of dense nanolipid fluid dispersions in the scientific literature are rare, and they have not been used to encapsulate drugs. In this paper we describe the synthesis of DNLF dispersions comprising ibuprofen using a recently described twin-screw extrusion process. We report that such dispersions are stable, bind ibuprofen tightly and yet provide high transdermal drug permeation. Ibuprofen DNLF dispersions prepared according to the present study provide up to five times greater flux of the pharmacologically active S-ibuprofen isomer through human skin than a commercially available racemic ibuprofen emulsion product. We demonstrate scaling up the twin-screw extrusion method to pilot production for a stable, highly permeating ibuprofen DNLF composition based on excipients approved by the US FDA for use in topical products as a key step towards development of a commercially viable, FDA approvable topical ibuprofen medicine to treat osteoarthritis, which has never before been accomplished.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric D Morrison
- Dynation LLC, 1000 Westgate Drive Suite 150N, Saint Paul, MN 55114, United States; Superior Nano, 1313 Fairgrounds Road Suite 150, Two Harbors, MN 55616, United States.
| | - Molin Guo
- Case Western Reserve University Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, 2100 Adelbert Rd., Cleveland, OH 44106, United States
| | - João Maia
- Case Western Reserve University Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, 2100 Adelbert Rd., Cleveland, OH 44106, United States
| | - Doug Nelson
- University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, 308 SE Harvard St., Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Suresh Swaminathan
- University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, 308 SE Harvard St., Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Karunya K Kandimalla
- University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, 308 SE Harvard St., Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Hanseung Lee
- University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering Characterization Facility 312 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Joseph Zasadzinski
- University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 421 Washington Ave SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Alon McCormick
- University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 421 Washington Ave SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - James Marti
- University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering Minnesota NanoCenter, 115 Union St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Brian Garhofer
- Superior Nano, 1313 Fairgrounds Road Suite 150, Two Harbors, MN 55616, United States
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7
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Kong J, Li L, Zeng Q, Cai Z, Wang Y, He H, Liu S, Li X. Oxidation of organosolv lignin in a novel surfactant-free microemulsion reactor. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 321:124466. [PMID: 33321297 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lignin is considered as a promising substitute for fossil resources, but its efficient conversion remains a huge challenge due to the structural complexity and immiscibility with typical solvents. Herein, a series of surfactant-free microemulsion reactors comprised of n-octane, water and n-propanol were designed and their corresponding phase behaviors alongside their ability to intensify oxidative depolymerization of lignin were explored. Experimental results show that the phenolic monomer yield improves substantially (40-500 wt%) by comparison with processes performed in a single solvent. Detailed characterizations also suggest that the above intensification is rationalized by the solubilization effect of microemulsion system and directional aggregation of lignin at the microemulsion interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanhua Kong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Lixia Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Qiang Zeng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zhenping Cai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Hongyan He
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Sijie Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
| | - Xuehui Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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8
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Ninham BW, Larsson K, Lo Nostro P. Two sides of the coin. Part 1. Lipid and surfactant self-assembly revisited. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 152:326-338. [PMID: 28131093 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Hofmeister, specific ion effects, hydration and van der Waals forces at and between interfaces are factors that determine curvature and microstructure in self assembled aggregates of surfactants and lipids; and in microemulsions. Lipid and surfactant head group interactions and between aggregates vary enormously and are highly specific. They act on the hydrophilic side of a bilayer, micelle or other self assembled aggregate. It is only over the last three decades that the origin of Hofmeister effects has become generally understood. Knowledge of their systematics now provides much flexibility in designing nanostructured fluids. The other side of the coin involves equally specific forces. These (opposing) forces work on the hydrophobic side of amphiphilic interfaces. They are due to the interaction of hydrocarbons and other "oils" with hydrophobic tails of surfactants and lipids. The specificity of oleophilic solutes in microemulsions and lipid membranes provides a counterpoint to Hofmeister effects and hydration. Together with global packing constraints these effects determine microstructure. Another factor that has hardly been recognised is the role of dissolved gas. This introduces further, qualitative changes in forces that prescribe microstructure. The systematics of these effects and their interplay are elucidated. Awareness of these competing factors facilitates formulation of self assembled nanostructured fluids. New and predictable geometries that emerge naturally provide insights into a variety of biological phenomena like anaesthetic and pheromone action and transmission of the nervous impulse (see Part 2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry W Ninham
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia; Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
| | - Kåre Larsson
- Camurus Lipid Research Foundation,Ideon Science Park, 22370, Lund, Sweden
| | - Pierandrea Lo Nostro
- Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy; Fondazione Prof. Enzo Ferroni-Onlus, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy.
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9
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A cryogenic-electron microscopy study of the one-phase corridor in the phase diagram of a nonionic surfactant-based microemulsion system. Colloid Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00396-015-3773-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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10
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Talmon Y. The study of nanostructured liquids by cryogenic-temperature electron microscopy — A status report. J Mol Liq 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2015.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Monduzzi M, Lampis S, Murgia S, Salis A. From self-assembly fundamental knowledge to nanomedicine developments. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2014; 205:48-67. [PMID: 24182715 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2013.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the key role of NMR techniques in demonstrating the molecular aspects of the self-assembly of surfactant molecules that nowadays constitute the basic knowledge which modern nanoscience relies on. The aim is to provide a tutorial overview. The story of a rigorous scientific approach to understand self-assembly in surfactant systems and biological membranes starts in the early seventies when the progresses of SAXRD and NMR technological facilities allowed to demonstrate the existence of ordered soft matter, and the validity of Tanford approach concerning self-assembly at a molecular level. Particularly, NMR quadrupolar splittings, NMR chemical shift anisotropy, and NMR relaxation of dipolar and quadrupolar nuclei in micellar solutions, microemulsions, and liquid crystals proved the existence of an ordered polar-apolar interface, on the NMR time scale. NMR data, rationalized in terms of the two-step model of relaxation, allowed to quantify the dynamic aspects of the supramolecular aggregates in different soft matter systems. In addition, NMR techniques allowed to obtain important information on counterion binding as well as on size of the aggregate through molecular self-diffusion. Indeed NMR self-diffusion proved without any doubt the existence of bicontinuous microemulsions and bicontinuous cubic liquid crystals, suggested by pioneering and brilliant interpretation of SAXRD investigations. Moreover, NMR self-diffusion played a fundamental role in the understanding of microemulsion and emulsion nanostructures, phase transitions in phase diagrams, and particularly percolation phenomena in microemulsions. Since the nineties, globalization of the knowledge along with many other technical facilities such as electron microscopy, particularly cryo-EM, produced huge progresses in surfactant and colloid science. Actually we refer to nanoscience: bottom up/top down strategies allow to build nanodevices with applications spanning from ICT to food technology. Developments in the applied fields have also been addressed by important progresses in theoretical skills aimed to understand intermolecular forces, and specific ion interactions. Nevertheless, this is still an open question. Our predictive ability has however increased, hence more ambitious targets can be planned. Nanomedicine represents a major challenging field with its main aims: targeted drug delivery, diagnostic, theranostics, tissue engineering, and personalized medicine. Few recent examples will be mentioned. Although the real applications of these systems still need major work, nevertheless new challenges are open, and perspectives based on integrated multidisciplinary approaches would enable both a deeper basic knowledge and the expected advances in biomedical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Monduzzi
- Dept. Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, CNBS & CSGI, University of Cagliari, SS 554 Bivio Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy.
| | - Sandrina Lampis
- Dept. Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, CNBS & CSGI, University of Cagliari, SS 554 Bivio Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Sergio Murgia
- Dept. Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, CNBS & CSGI, University of Cagliari, SS 554 Bivio Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Andrea Salis
- Dept. Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, CNBS & CSGI, University of Cagliari, SS 554 Bivio Sestu, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
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12
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Koifman N, Schnabel-Lubovsky M, Talmon Y. Nanostructure Formation in the Lecithin/Isooctane/Water System. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:9558-67. [DOI: 10.1021/jp405490q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naama Koifman
- Department of Chemical
Engineering and the Russell
Berrie Nanotechnology Institute (RBNI), Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Maya Schnabel-Lubovsky
- Department of Chemical
Engineering and the Russell
Berrie Nanotechnology Institute (RBNI), Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Yeshayahu Talmon
- Department of Chemical
Engineering and the Russell
Berrie Nanotechnology Institute (RBNI), Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
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