Small Poultry Flocks in Alberta: Demographics and Practices

Assessment of the knowledge and behavior of backyard and small-scale producers in California regarding disease prevention, biosecurity practices and antibiotics use

The number and popularity of backyard poultry and livestock farming have rapidly increased in California as well as other states in the United States following consumers' preference for local and organic products in the last few years. This study aimed to investigate current on-farm management and farmers' understanding of Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) and California Senate Bill (SB) 27 implications for disease prevention, biosecurity procedures, and antimicrobial use in small-scale and backyard farms in California. The survey consisted of 38 questions. The responses of 242 backyard and small-scale livestock owners were investigated in this study. Descriptive statistics summarized survey responses, and multivariable logistic regression evaluated the association of antibiotics purchase and use, and the impact of VFD and SB27 on antibiotic use with demographics and on-farm management. Backyard and small-scale farmers in California mostly raised chickens or small ruminants with small herd sizes kept for personal use. Antibiotics were generally used for individual treatment of a sick animal with the guidance of a veterinarian. VFD and SB27 implementation promoted the judicious use of antibiotics, specifically, by enhancing the relationship between backyard and small-scale farmers with veterinarians and treating fewer animals with antibiotics under veterinary oversight. Therefore, better access to veterinary service in backyard and small-scale farms will improve the farmer's knowledge of good husbandry practices with judicious antimicrobial use in livestock and finally contribute to reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance in California.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from Laying Hens Housed in Different Rearing Systems

Campylobacter (C.) jejuni and C. coli are responsible for food poisoning in humans. Laying hens may host the bacteria usually without developing symptoms. The aims of this paper were to evaluate the incidence of C. jejuni and C. coli infection in laying hen flocks housed in different rearing systems, the plasma levels of two welfare indicators (corticosterone and interleukin 6, IL-6) and the antimicrobial resistance of the detected Campylobacter strains. Two different flocks (1 and 2) from cage (A), barn (B) and aviary (C) farms were investigated. The highest (p < 0.05) levels of IL-6 were detected in laying hens housed in aviaries. A similar trend emerged in corticosterone level, although differences were found between C1 and C2. C. jejuni and C. coli were identified in 43.5% and 38.9% of birds, respectively. In total, 14 out of 177 (7.9%) hens simultaneously hosted C. jejuni and C. coli.C. jejuni was prevalently detected in hens housed in barns (B1: 53.3%; B2: 46.7%) and aviaries (C1: 34.6%; C2: 86.7%). Conversely, laying hens housed in cages were significantly exposed to infection of C. coli (A1: 41.9%; A2: 80%) while, regarding barns and aviaries, a significant prevalence emerged only in flocks B2 (40%) and C1 (54.8%). Simultaneous infection was statistically significant in barn B1 (36.7%). Antibiotic resistance was mainly detected among C. coli strains, and it was most frequent for fluoroquinolones and tetracycline. Multidrug resistance was also found in C. jejuni (19.7%) and C. coli (17.5%) strains. Based on the results of this study, we recommend increasing biosecurity and hygienic measures to manage hen flocks.

Antibacterial treatment for exotic species, backyard ruminants and small flocks: a narrative review highlighting barriers to effective and appropriate antimicrobial treatment

Antimicrobial resistance is a complex One Health issue that exists in both human and veterinary medicine. To mitigate this ever-growing problem, efforts have been made to develop guidelines for appropriate antimicrobial use (AMU) across sectors. In veterinary medicine, there are notable literature gaps for proper AMU in minor species. We conducted a structured narrative review covering the years of July 2006 - July 2021 to find antimicrobial treatments for common bacterial infections in exotic (birds, rodents, reptiles, and others), small flock (chickens, turkeys, and other fowl), and backyard small ruminant (sheep and goats) species. We retrieved a total of 4728 articles, of which 21 articles met the criteria for our review. Studies were grouped according to species, syndrome, and body system affected. Other data extracted included the bacterial pathogen(s), treatment (active ingredient), and geographical origin. Body systems reported included: intra-oral (n = 4), gastrointestinal (n = 1), respiratory (n = 2), reproductive (n = 1), skin (n = 3), aural (n = 1), ocular (n = 4), and other/multisystem (n = 5). By species, our search resulted in: rabbit (n = 5), rat (n = 2), guinea pig (n = 1), chinchilla (n = 1), guinea pig and chinchilla (n = 1), avian species (n = 1), psittacine birds (n = 2), loris and lorikeets (n = 1), turtles (n = 2), lizards (n = 1), goats (n = 2) and sheep (n = 2). The results of our findings identified a distinct gap in consistent antimicrobial treatment information for commonly encountered bacterial conditions within these species. There is a persisting need for clinical trials that focus on antibacterial treatment to strengthen the evidence base for AMU within exotic, small flock, and backyard small ruminant species.

Demographic, Husbandry, and Biosecurity Factors Associated with the Presence of Campylobacter spp. in Small Poultry Flocks in Ontario, Canada

This study is part of a 2 year disease surveillance project conducted to establish the prevalence of poultry and zoonotic pathogens, including Campylobacter spp., among small poultry flocks in Ontario, Canada. For each post-mortem submission to the Animal Health Laboratory, a pooled sample of cecal tissue was cultured for Campylobacter spp., and a husbandry and biosecurity questionnaire was completed by the flock owner (n = 153). Using both laboratory and questionnaire data, our objective was to investigate demographic, husbandry, and biosecurity factors associated with the presence of Campylobacter spp. in small flocks. Two multivariable logistic regression models were built. In the farm model, the odds of Campylobacter spp. were higher in turkeys, and when birds were housed in a mixed group with different species and/or types of birds. The odds were lower when antibiotics were used within the last 12 months, and when birds had at least some free-range access. The effect of pest control depended on the number of birds at risk. In the coop model, the odds of Campylobacter spp. were lower when owners wore dedicated clothing when entering the coop. These results can be used to limit the transmission of Campylobacter spp. from small poultry flocks to humans.

Backyard poultry flocks in France: A diversity of owners and biosecurity practices

Over the past few years, the number of backyard poultry flocks has been increasing in France. A mandatory step to improve backyard poultry management is to assess health risks by characterizing the flocks and understanding the owners' motivations for keeping poultry and their husbandry practices. A survey of backyard poultry owners was conducted in France to gather information about their motivations for owning poultry, flock characteristics, and breeding and biosecurity practices. The survey was completed by 1,160 owners. The major motivations for owning poultry flocks were egg consumption (93.3 %), recycling (72.4 %) and having pet animals (53.2 %). Most owners had already heard about avian influenza (96.7 %), but were less aware about other diseases such as Newcastle Disease (41.6 %), salmonellosis (79.1 %), or campylobacteriosis (18.6 %). Owners mainly kept only egg-layers (78.4 %), and the median size flock was five egg-layers. Owners gave eggs to their relatives, occasionally or regularly, in 86.6 % of the cases. Contacts with other family poultry owners were frequent (68.9 %) and biosecurity practices were poorly implemented: 50 % of owners did not wash their hands systematically after visiting the flock and more than 60 % of owners did not wear specific shoes. Drawing from the survey data, five profiles of family poultry flocks were identified with multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. The profiles, based on flock characteristics and owners' practices and motivations, illustrate the heterogeneity of the backyard poultry sector: 1) urban poultry, 2) traditional poultry, 3) student poultry, 4) pet poultry and 5) hobby poultry. Urban poultry consisted of recently constituted (< 2 years old), small (< 3 birds) flocks of layers, and traditional poultry of older, medium-sized flocks belonging to retired and older people. These two profiles were characterized by limited contacts (direct or indirect) with other flocks and owners. Student poultry consisted of younger owners (<30 years old) with flocks over 5 years old. Pet poultry consisted of recently established, medium-size flocks of layers located in both rural or urban environments. Hobby poultry consisted of dedicated owners who breed and sell poultry and participate in exhibitions and poultry shows. Pet and hobby poultry profiles were characterized by greater knowledge of diseases and biosecurity practices, more bird movements, and reported more frequent clinical signs. The observation of different profiles can help target veterinary and public health education messages to prevent disease transmission in backyard poultry flocks in France.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS, AND HUSBANDRY AND BIOSECURITY PRACTICES OF SMALL POULTRY FLOCKS IN ONTARIO, CANADA

As part of a two-year, disease surveillance project of small poultry flocks, owners of birds submitted for postmortem examination to the Animal Health Laboratory were asked to complete a questionnaire designed to gather information on the characteristics of the flock and its environment, how the flock was managed, and biosecurity measures used. A total of 153 unique questionnaires were received. Personal consumption of meat or eggs was the most common reason for owning a small flock (69.3%). Almost all owners (97.4%) reported having chickens on their property, while 21.6% had waterfowl, 15.7% had turkeys, and 15.7% had game birds. Nearly seventy percent (69.9%) of the flocks had some degree of outdoor access. For those with indoor access, the most common bedding material provided was soft wood shavings (70.2%). Kitchen waste or leftovers were offered to 65.3% of flocks, and well water was the most common source of drinking water (80.6%). For flocks with indoor access, dedicated shoes and clothes were used when entering or cleaning the coop by less than half of owners, and shoes were rarely disinfected before or after contact with the flock. Most owners (93.8%) reported washing their hands after contact with their birds, although only 48.3% reported washing their hands before contact. Among owners who sourced birds from a hatchery, only 36.8% indicated that the birds had been vaccinated and 21.1% were unsure if vaccines had been administered. Among owners using medication (60.5%), the use of antibiotics was common (60.9%). Overall, questionnaire responses describe a wide range of husbandry and biosecurity practices, often suboptimal, and point out the need for educational material for Ontario small flock owners.

Assessment of veterinarians' engagement with backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations in four western states

OBJECTIVE

To assess veterinarian engagement with owners of poultry and livestock in urban and peri-urban areas (UPAs) of 4 western states, to evaluate the knowledge and experience of veterinarians in UPAs for treating domestic poultry and livestock, and to identify barriers to the provision of veterinary services to backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations.

SAMPLE

880 veterinarians in UPAs.

PROCEDURES

2,400 members of the veterinary medical associations of California, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington who worked in metropolitan areas with a population > 5,000 people were randomly selected and invited to participate in a needs assessment survey. Response data were analyzed with univariable logistic regression and multiple correspondence analysis.

RESULTS

880 (37%) invitees completed or partially completed the survey. Most respondents self-reported working in UPAs (686/825 [83%]) and companion animal only (n = 551) or predominant (211) practices. Although most (656/863 [76%]) respondents perceived an increase in backyard poultry and livestock in their practice areas, few were actively treating such animals primarily because of a lack of facilities, interest, or experience. Most respondents believed veterinarians have an important role in ensuring public health and preventing zoonotic disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Backyard poultry and livestock are increasing in popularity in UPAs of 4 western states, and veterinarians are needed to provide services to such animals. Further research and continuing education are necessary to encourage practitioners in UPAs to engage with owners of backyard poultry and livestock to ensure the health and welfare of those animals and guard public health. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257:196-209).

Backyard poultry cases in UK small animal practices: Demographics, health conditions and pharmaceutical prescriptions

BACKGROUND

Backyard poultry ownership is of keen interest in the United Kingdom. However, despite this, little is known about veterinary care engagement and outcomes of visits in this group of species.

METHODS

This study described and characterised veterinary practice-visiting backyard poultry, utilising electronic health record data supplied by veterinary practices voluntarily participating in the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network between 1st April 2014 and 31st March 2019.

RESULTS

In total, 4424 recorded poultry consultations originating from 197 veterinary practices (352 sites) were summarised. Chicken consultation (n = 3740) peak incidence was in early summer (April-June), relative to all recorded species. More chickens resided in rural (incident rate ratio = 2.5, confidence interval [CI] 2.3-2.6, p <0.001) or less deprived areas. Non-specific clinical signs were commonly recorded (17.6% of chicken consultations, CI 15.9-19.2), as were those indicative of advanced disease. This latter finding was reflected in prescribed management strategies, with euthanasia comprising 29.8% (CI 27.0-32.6) of consultations. Antimicrobials were commonly prescribed (33.0% of consultations, CI 29.8-36.2), 43.8% of which included antimicrobials considered 'highest priority critically important' by the World Health Organisation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate a need to tailor antimicrobial prescription guidance to the backyard poultry setting. In addition, late presentation of disease, vague clinical descriptions in clinical narratives and high euthanasia rates show that disease identification, management and knowledge of poultry health and welfare among owners and veterinary surgeons can be improved.

The Structural Characteristics, Management, and Challenges of Backyard Poultry Farming in Residential Areas of Turkey

Simple Summary

Relatively little is known about backyard poultry flocks in urban areas in Turkey, their size and how they are managed. To address this knowledge gap, a semi-structured survey was conducted of backyard poultry owners in Turkey with regard to flock characteristics, management, biosecurity practices and the challenges of backyard poultry flocks. Data derived from 1094 respondents across Turkey showed that the majority of respondents owned small flocks with fewer than 50 birds. Most participants reported keeping poultry as food for family use and free-range coops were the most preferred type of housing. Keeping different poultry species together, which poses a significant biosecurity risk, was reported by 64% of owners. Internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common health problems in backyard flocks. Although there is a significant amount of backyard poultry farming activity in residential districts of Turkey, lack of regional regulations and animal theft were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health. A thorough understanding of the complexities of backyard poultry practices and the needs of backyard breeders will help authorities to design effective policies for the backyard poultry sector in Turkey.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about the backyard poultry sector in Turkey. This included a profile of the poultry owners, flock characteristics, husbandry, housing conditions, the owners’ biosecurity measures and the challenges of backyard poultry farming in residential areas of Turkey. An online semi-structured survey was fully completed by 1094 respondents. The majority of respondents (91%) owned fewer than 50 birds and reported raising other poultry species besides chickens (64%). Most of the participants indicated that they kept poultry as food for family use (83%) and had been involved in chicken-raising activities for less than 10 years (86%). Free-range coops were the type of housing most preferred by the respondents (86%). However, there was a lack of awareness about poultry diseases and poultry health care conditions. Respondents that confirmed wild bird and rodent access to their feeders and drinkers reported high rates of internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases (p < 0.001). Lack of regional regulations (84%), animal theft (80%), lack of information on poultry management (79%), minimizing predation (75%), and the need for vaccination and veterinary services (73%) were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for improved biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health.

Antimicrobial resistance in fecal Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica isolates: a two-year prospective study of small poultry flocks in Ontario, Canada

Background

Although keeping small poultry flocks is increasingly popular in Ontario, information on the antimicrobial susceptibility of enteric bacteria of such flocks is lacking. The current study was conducted on small poultry flocks in Ontario between October 2015 and September 2017, and samples were submitted on a voluntary basis to Ontario’s Animal Health Laboratory. From each submission, a pooled cecal sample was obtained from all the birds of the same species from the same flock and tested for the presence of two common enteric pathogens, E. coli and Salmonella. Three different isolates from each E. coli-positive sample and one isolate from each Salmonella-positive sample were selected and tested for susceptibility to 14 antimicrobials using a broth microdilution technique.

Results

A total of 433 fecal E. coli isolates (358 chicken, 27 turkey, 24 duck, and 24 game bird) and 5 Salmonella isolates (3 chicken, 1 turkey, and 1 duck) were recovered. One hundred and sixty-seven chicken, 5 turkey, 14 duck, and 15 game bird E. coli isolates were pan-susceptible. For E. coli, a moderate to high proportion of isolates were resistant to tetracycline (43% chicken, 81% turkey, 42% duck, and 38% game bird isolates), streptomycin (29% chicken, 37% turkey, and 33% game bird isolates), sulfonamides (17% chicken, 37% turkey, and 21% duck isolates), and ampicillin (16% chicken and 41% turkey isolates). Multidrug resistance was found in 37% of turkey, 20% of chicken, 13% of duck, and 8% of game bird E. coli isolates. Salmonella isolates were most frequently resistant to streptomycin, tetracycline, and sulfonamides. Resistance to cephalosporins, carbapenems, macrolides, and quinolones was infrequent in both E. coli and Salmonella isolates. Cluster and correlation analyses identified streptomycin-tetracycline-sulfisoxazole-trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as the most common resistance pattern in chicken E. coli isolates. Turkey E. coli isolates compared to all the other poultry species had higher odds of resistance to tetracycline and ampicillin, and a higher multidrug resistance rate.

Conclusions

Escherichia coli isolates were frequently resistant to antimicrobials commonly used to treat poultry bacterial infections, which highlights the necessity of judicious antimicrobial use to limit the emergence of multidrug resistant bacteria.

Antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated from small poultry flocks in Ontario, Canada: A two-year surveillance study

Antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter, common in poultry, is a global public health issue. The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter has been linked to the use of antimicrobials in food animals. Small poultry flocks are becoming increasingly popular not only as a source of food but also as pets, yet not all small flock owners are aware of proper antimicrobial use practices and safe food handling protocols. This trend could contribute to antimicrobial resistance. In order to determine the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter in small poultry flocks, we analyzed data from birds that had been submitted to a diagnostic laboratory in Ontario between October 2015 and September 2017. A pooled cecal sample was obtained from each submission and cultured for Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Three isolates were recovered from each positive sample and tested for susceptibility to nine antimicrobials using a broth microdilution method. Overall, 176 isolates were recovered (141 chicken, 21 turkey, 6 duck, and 8 game bird). A high frequency of resistance to tetracycline was observed in the C. jejuni isolates from chickens (77%) and turkeys (100%), and in the C. coli isolates from turkeys (50%) and game birds (40%). Campylobacter jejuni isolates had higher odds of resistance to tetracycline (OR = 3.54, P ≤ 0.01) compared to C. coli isolates. Overall, there was a low frequency of resistance to quinolones and a very low frequency of resistance to macrolides. Multidrug resistance was uncommon. The high prevalence of tetracycline resistance emphasizes the importance of prudent antimicrobial use in small flocks. Although low, the presence of resistance to macrolides and quinolones, which are used to treat campylobacteriosis in humans, highlights the need for proper food safety and infection control practices by small flock owners to prevent exposure to antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter.

A two-year prospective study of small poultry flocks in Ontario, Canada, part 1: prevalence of viral and bacterial pathogens

In Ontario, within the past few years, there has been a marked increase in the number of non-commercial poultry flocks (referred to as "small flocks"). Small poultry flocks may act as a reservoir of avian and zoonotic pathogens, given the flocks' limited access to veterinary services, inadequate biosecurity practices, and increased risk of contact with wild birds. Despite these potential risks, there is a scarcity of data concerning the prevalence of poultry and zoonotic pathogens among these flocks. To assess the baseline prevalence of bacterial and viral infectious pathogens, prospective surveillance of small flock postmortem submissions to the Animal Health Laboratory was conducted over a 2-y period. With the owner's consent, a postmortem examination and pre-set tests for infectious agents were conducted. A total of 160 submissions, mainly chickens (84%), were received. Among bacterial pathogens, Brachyspira spp., Mycoplasma synoviae, Campylobacter spp., Mycoplasma gallisepticum, and Salmonella spp. were detected in 37%, 36%, 35%, 23%, and 3% of tested submissions, respectively. Among viral pathogens, infectious bronchitis virus, fowl adenovirus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, avian reovirus, and infectious bursal disease virus were detected in 39%, 35%, 15%, 4%, and 1% of submissions, respectively. We detected non-virulent avian avulavirus 1 from two chickens in a single submission, and low-pathogenic H10N8 influenza A virus from a single turkey submission. Our study provides baseline prevalence of viral and bacterial pathogens circulating in Ontario small flocks and may help animal and human health professionals to educate small flock owners about disease prevention.

Small-scale and backyard livestock owners needs assessment in the western United States

The number of small-scale and backyard livestock and poultry owners in urban and peri-urban areas has increased greatly over the last 10 years in the U.S. However, these animal owners may live in areas without access to livestock and/or poultry veterinary care. The purpose of this study was to identify potential veterinary service needs of these animal owners in the western US, assess their use of management and husbandry practices with regards to disease prevention, and assess their attitudes about animal health and food safety. A semi-structured survey was made available to small-scale and backyard livestock and poultry owners in Washington State, California, Colorado and Oregon. The survey instrument included questions about types of animals reared, uses of the animals, veterinary services and information-seeking behaviors of owners, attitudes on animal health and food safety, and management practices. Four hundred thirty-five individuals completed at least some portion of the survey. Most described themselves as living in rural areas (76%). Most (86%) owned chickens, 53% owned small ruminants, and 31% owned cattle. Many individuals owned more than one species and most had fewer than 20 animals of a given species. About 74% of respondents utilized their animals’ products for their own consumption but 48% sold animal products (primarily through internet sales (35%) or farmers’ markets (25%)). Overwhelmingly, respondents gained information about animal health (82%) and animal treatment procedures (71%) from the internet. Respondents reported their veterinarian’s practice type as companion animal (26%) or a mixed animal or food animal predominant (66%). Overall, respondents were very satisfied with the level of care (82%), but 43% had not sought animal health care in last 12 months. However, the veterinarian’s primary practice type and owner’s satisfaction with veterinary care were associated with their location (state), species owned, and urban or peri-urban setting. Livestock species type (cattle, small ruminants and swine), and use (personal or commercial) were associated with implementation of different biosecurity practices. The results of this survey highlight some of the needs of these animal owners for veterinary care and information which are location- and species-specific. Veterinary care for these small-scale and backyard animals is vital to the health and welfare of the animals as well as for identification of zoonoses and assurance of the food safety of animal products.