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Peters M, King J, Wohlsein P, Grund C, Harder T. Genuine lethal infection of a wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) with high pathogenicity avian influenza H5N1, clade 2.3.4.4b, in Germany, 2022. Vet Microbiol 2022; 270:109461. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Prompiram P, Sariya L, Poltep K, Paungpin W, Suksai P, Taowan J, Sedwisai P, Rattanavibul K, Buranathai C. Overview of avian influenza virus in urban feral pigeons in Bangkok, Thailand. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 84:101784. [PMID: 35255442 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2022.101784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This survey assessed the presence of avian influenza virus (AIV) in urban feral pigeons (UFPs) in Bangkok, Thailand. A total of 485 UFPs were collected from eight study sites, and blood, tracheal, and cloacal samples were collected from each bird. Virus isolation and molecular methods did not detect AIV in any of the birds tested. A hemagglutination inhibition test was used to test for antibodies to high and low pathogenicity AIV subtypes. AIV subtype H9 antibodies were the only antibodies detected. The overall seroprevalence of AIV subtype H9 antibodies was 6.9%, and subtype H9 antibodies were found in UFPs at all eight sites. The overall geometric mean titer was 11.07 (range: 8-64). These results reveal that UFPs in Bangkok do not currently pose a risk of transmitting AIV to humans. However, monitoring of AIV in UFPs is necessary for disease control and to minimize the possibility of influenza outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phirom Prompiram
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand.
| | - Ladawan Sariya
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Kanaporn Poltep
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Weena Paungpin
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Parut Suksai
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Jarupha Taowan
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Poonyapat Sedwisai
- The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
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Subclinical Infection and Transmission of Clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus in Mandarin Duck ( Aix galericulata) and Domestic Pigeon ( Columbia livia domestica). Viruses 2021; 13:v13061069. [PMID: 34199847 PMCID: PMC8227613 DOI: 10.3390/v13061069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2014, H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) have caused outbreaks in wild birds and poultry in multiple continents, including Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. Wild birds were suspected to be the sources of the local and global spreads of HPAIV. This study evaluated the infectivity, pathogenicity, and transmissibility of clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIV in mandarin ducks (Aixgalericulata) and domestic pigeons (Columbia livia domestica). None of the birds used in this study, 20 mandarin ducks or 8 pigeons, showed clinical signs or mortality due to H5N6 HPAI infection. Two genotypes of H5N6 HPAIV showed replication and transmission by direct and indirect contact between mandarin ducks. H5N6 HPAIV replicated and transmitted by direct contact between pigeons, although the viral shedding titer and duration were relatively lower and shorter than those in mandarin ducks. Influenza virus antigen was detected in various internal organs of infected mandarin ducks and pigeons, indicating systemic infection. Therefore, our results indicate mandarin ducks and pigeons can be subclinically infected with clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIV and transfer the virus to adjacent birds. The role of mandarin ducks and pigeons in the spread and prevalence of clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 viruses should be carefully monitored.
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Sánchez-González R, Ramis A, Nofrarías M, Wali N, Valle R, Pérez M, Perlas A, Majó N. Infectivity and pathobiology of H7N1 and H5N8 high pathogenicity avian influenza viruses for pigeons ( Columba livia var. domestica). Avian Pathol 2020; 50:98-106. [PMID: 33034513 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2020.1832197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Avian influenza (AI) is one of the most important viral diseases in poultry, wildlife and humans. Available data indicate that pigeons play a minimum role in the epidemiology of AI. However, a degree of variation exists in the susceptibility of pigeons to highly pathogenic AI viruses (HPAIVs), especially since the emergence of the goose/Guangdong H5 lineage. Here, the pathogenesis of H5N8 HPAIV in comparison with a H7N1 HPAIV and the role of pigeons in the epidemiology of these viruses were evaluated. Local and urban pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) were intranasally inoculated with 105 ELD50 of A/goose/Spain/IA17CR02699/2017 (H5N8) or A/Chicken/Italy/5093/1999 (H7N1) and monitored during 14 days. Several pigeons inoculated with H5N8 or H7N1 seroconverted. However, clinical signs, mortality, microscopic lesions and viral antigen were only detected in a local pigeon inoculated with H5N8 HPAIV. This pigeon presented prostration and neurological signs that correlated with the presence of large areas of necrosis and widespread AIV antigen in the central nervous system, indicating that the fatal outcome was associated with neurological dysfunction. Viral RNA in swabs was detected in some pigeons inoculated with H7N1 and H5N8, but it was inconsistent, short-term and at low titres. The present study demonstrates that the majority of pigeons were resistant to H5N8 and H7N1 HPAIVs, despite several pigeons developing asymptomatic infections. The limited viral shedding indicates a minimum role of pigeons as amplifiers of HPAIVs, regardless of the viral lineage, and suggests that this species may represent a low risk for environmental contamination. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS H7N1 and H5N8 HPAIVs can produce subclinical infections in pigeons. The mortality caused by H5N8 HPAIV in one pigeon was associated with neurological dysfunction. Pigeons represent a low risk for environmental contamination by HPAIVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sánchez-González
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - A Ramis
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España.,Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Birds, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, España
| | - M Nofrarías
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - N Wali
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - R Valle
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - M Pérez
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - A Perlas
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España
| | - N Majó
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, España.,Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Birds, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, España
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Zoonotic pathogens in urban animals: Enough research to protect the health of the urban population? Anim Health Res Rev 2020; 21:50-60. [PMID: 32051044 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252319000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
With more than half of the global population living in cities, the urban areas are also teeming with animals, including peridomestic wildlife, pets, and livestock. Urban animals may carry zoonotic pathogens, and crowded conditions in cities can increase the risk for the human population. We used a systematic approach to screen two publication databases as well as gray literature, and quantified the studies conducted on zoonoses in urban animals with respect to the geographic distribution, the host animal and pathogens. Out of 876 references found, 93 were included into final data extraction. Few studies were from the rapidly expanding cities in low- and middle-income countries where urban livestock-keeping is far more prominent than in high-income countries. Most studies were performed in peridomestic wildlife and pets, less in livestock. The most common category of pathogens studied were gastrointestinal parasites followed by gastrointestinal bacteria, whereas studies on some other zoonoses internationally recognized as critical for public health were few or absent. In conclusion, to mitigate the risks of emergence of zoonoses from urban animals this review highlights the research gaps on zoonoses, particularly in livestock in rapidly growing tropical cities and a more comprehensive inclusion of pathogens prioritized by WHO and OIE.
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Liu Y, Yang Z, Wang X, Chen J, Yao J, Song Y, Lin J, Han C, Duan H, Zhao J, Pan J, Xie J. Pigeons are resistant to experimental infection with H7N9 avian influenza virus. Avian Pathol 2016; 44:342-6. [PMID: 26443061 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2015.1055235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
To determine the susceptibility of pigeons to the newly emerged avian influenza virus subtype H7N9, we experimentally infected three different types of pigeons (meat, town, and racing) with two different doses (2 × 10(4) or 2 × 10(5) EID50) of H7N9 avian influenza virus A/Chicken/China/2013 by either intranasal and intraocular inoculation (IN + IO) or intravenous injection (IV). In addition, the potential transmission of H7N9 to pigeons by direct close contact with experimentally infected pigeons and chickens was assessed. Results showed that none of the experimentally infected pigeons exhibited any clinical signs regardless of the infection route and dose. Of the 12 racing pigeons that were randomly selected and necropsied, none of them had any gross lesions. In agreement with this finding, virus was not isolated from all pigeons. No detectable H7-specific antibodies were found in any pigeon. In contrast, 11 of 31 chickens that were either directly infected with H7N9 by IN + IO inoculation or by contact with IN + IO-infected chickens had conjunctivitis. Virus was isolated from all 31 chickens and H7-specific antibodies were detected in these chickens. However, none of the IV-infected chickens or chickens in direct contact with IV-infected chickens had any clinical signs. No virus was isolated from these chickens and no H7-specific antibody was detected. Overall, we conclude that pigeons are less or not susceptible to the H7N9 virus at the doses used and are not likely to serve as a reservoir for the virus. However, the virus does cause conjunctivitis in chickens and can transmit to susceptible hosts by direct contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuehuan Liu
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiyuan Yang
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiuqing Wang
- b Department of Biology and Microbiology , South Dakota State University , Brookings , SD , USA
| | - Jiming Chen
- c China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center , Qingdao , People's Republic of China
| | - Jiezhang Yao
- d Beijing Municipal Bureau of Agriculture , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Yanjun Song
- d Beijing Municipal Bureau of Agriculture , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Lin
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Chunhua Han
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Huijuan Duan
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jicheng Zhao
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Pan
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jia Xie
- a Institute of Animal and Husbandry Medicine , Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
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Kaleta EF. [Fowl plague and avian influenza A viruses of poultry and birds. Diagnosis, control measures and practical experiences]. Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere 2014; 42:375-85; quiz 386. [PMID: 25402010 DOI: 10.15653/tpg-140681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The causes of the notifiable fowl plague are high and low pathogenic avian influenza A viruses of the haemagglutinin subtypes H5 and H7 but also other haemagglutinin subtypes If the intravenous pathogenicity index is greater than 1.2. The German fowl plague order (Geflügelpest-Verordnung) differentiates between highly pathogenic influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5 and H7, if multiple basic amino acids at the cleavage site of the haemagglutinin molecules are detected by virus isolation, antigen or genome determination and low pathogenic avian influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5 and H7 if either the intravenous pathogenicity index is lower than 1.2 or no basic amino acids are present at the cleavage site of the haemagglutinin molecule. Aspects of diagnosis, control including culling, therapy and vaccination are reviewed. The currently available means and their limitations of a therapy of fowl plague by oral administration of neuraminidase inhibitors (e. g. oseltamivir) are described. Following granted permission, individually marked valuable zoo and pet birds may be vaccinated using licensed inactivated vaccines. Vector vaccines have not been used in Germany so far. Avian influenza A viruses of other haemagglutinin subtypes (H1-H4, H6, H8-H18) may also cause infections and severe disease. These subtypes are not subject to governmental interventions and disease can be prevented by timely use of inactivated vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Kaleta
- Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Erhard F. Kaleta, Klinik für Vögel, Reptilien, Amphibien und Fische, Fachbereich Veterinärmedizin, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Frankfurter Straße 91-93, 35392 Gießen, E-Mail:
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Slusher MJ, Wilcox BR, Lutrell MP, Poulson RL, Brown JD, Yabsley MJ, Stallknecht DE. Are passerine birds reservoirs for influenza A viruses? J Wildl Dis 2014; 50:792-809. [PMID: 25121402 PMCID: PMC11312393 DOI: 10.7589/2014-02-043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Although peridomestic passerine species have been involved in influenza A virus (IAV) outbreaks in poultry, there is little evidence to indicate they serve as reservoirs for these viruses under natural conditions. Recent molecular-based detections of IAV in terrestrial wild birds have challenged this paradigm, and it has been suggested that additional research is warranted to better define the role of these birds as IAV hosts. To address this need, we reviewed the published literature reporting results from IAV surveillance of passerines. We also conducted prospective virologic and serologic surveillance of North American passerines for IAVs. The literature review included 60 publications from 1975-2013 that reported results from 829 species of passerines and other terrestrial birds. In our prospective study during 2010 and 2011, 3,868 serum samples and 900 swab samples were collected and tested from 102 terrestrial wild bird species from Georgia, New Jersey, Delaware, and Minnesota, USA. Antibodies to the nucleoprotein of IAV were detected with a commercial blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 4/3,868 serum samples (0.1%); all positive samples were from Minnesota. No virus was detected in 900 swab samples by virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs or matrix real-time reverse transcriptase PCR. Our results are consistent with historic literature; although passerines and terrestrial wild birds may have a limited role in the epidemiology of IAV when associated with infected domestic poultry or other aberrant hosts, there is no evidence supporting their involvement as natural reservoirs for IAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan J. Slusher
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, The University of Georgia, 180 E Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Benjamin R. Wilcox
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
| | - M. Page Lutrell
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
| | - Rebecca L. Poulson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
| | - Justin D. Brown
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
- Current address: Pennsylvania Game Commission, Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Orchard Rd., University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, The University of Georgia, 180 E Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - David E. Stallknecht
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
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Abolnik C. A current review of avian influenza in pigeons and doves (Columbidae). Vet Microbiol 2014; 170:181-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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Teske L, Ryll M, Rautenschlein S. Epidemiological investigations on the role of clinically healthy racing pigeons as a reservoir for avian paramyxovirus-1 and avian influenza virus. Avian Pathol 2013; 42:557-65. [DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2013.852157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Phan TG, Vo NP, Boros Á, Pankovics P, Reuter G, Li OTW, Wang C, Deng X, Poon LLM, Delwart E. The viruses of wild pigeon droppings. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72787. [PMID: 24023772 PMCID: PMC3762862 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Birds are frequent sources of emerging human infectious diseases. Viral particles were enriched from the feces of 51 wild urban pigeons (Columba livia) from Hong Kong and Hungary, their nucleic acids randomly amplified and then sequenced. We identified sequences from known and novel species from the viral families Circoviridae, Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae, Reoviridae, Adenovirus, Astroviridae, and Caliciviridae (listed in decreasing number of reads), as well as plant and insect viruses likely originating from consumed food. The near full genome of a new species of a proposed parvovirus genus provisionally called Aviparvovirus contained an unusually long middle ORF showing weak similarity to an ORF of unknown function from a fowl adenovirus. Picornaviruses found in both Asia and Europe that are distantly related to the turkey megrivirus and contained a highly divergent 2A1 region were named mesiviruses. All eleven segments of a novel rotavirus subgroup related to a chicken rotavirus in group G were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. This study provides an initial assessment of the enteric virome in the droppings of pigeons, a feral urban species with frequent human contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tung Gia Phan
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Nguyen Phung Vo
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Pharmacology Department, School of Pharmacy, Ho Chi Minh City University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Ákos Boros
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Pankovics
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Reuter
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Olive T. W. Li
- Centre of Influenza Research and School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Chunling Wang
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Xutao Deng
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Leo L. M. Poon
- Centre of Influenza Research and School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Eric Delwart
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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