1
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Mehta RK, Tan M, Hassan MK, Zhao T, Markovitz DM, Lawrence TS, Nyati MK. Investigating NanoLuc-EGFR engineered cell lines for real-time monitoring of EGFR protein dynamics in live cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 733:150711. [PMID: 39312880 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2024] [Revised: 09/04/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
Evaluating the steady-state protein level of the EGFR in live cells presents significant challenges compared to measuring its kinase activity. Traditional testing methods, such as immunoblotting, ELISA, and immunofluorescence assays, are generally restricted to fixed cells or cell lysates. Despite their utility, these methods are cumbersome and provide only intermittent snapshots of EGFR levels at specific time points. With emerging trends in drug development shifting toward engineering novel agents that promote protein degradation, rather than simply inhibiting kinase activity, a tool that enables real-time, quantitative detection of drug effects in live cells could catalyze advances in the field. Such an innovation would expedite the drug development process, enhancing the translation of research findings into effective, patient-centered therapies. The NanoLuc-EGFR cell line, created through CRISPR genome editing, allows for the continuous tracking and analysis of EGFR protein levels and their degradation within live cells. This approach provides quantitative monitoring of protein dynamics in real time, offering insights that go beyond absolute protein levels to include aspects such as protein stability and degradation rate. Using this cell line model, we observed that AT13387 and H84T BanLec induce EGFR degradation in A549-HiBiT cells, with the results confirmed by immunoblotting. In contrast, Erlotinib, Osimertinib, and Cetuximab inhibit EGFR phosphorylation without altering total EGFR levels, as validated by the HiBiT luciferase assay. The NanoLuc-EGFR cell line marks a significant advancement in understanding protein regulation and serves as an instrumental platform for investigating targeted therapies that modulate protein kinases, especially those that induce protein degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjit K Mehta
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Mingjia Tan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Mohammed K Hassan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Tengda Zhao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
| | - David M Markovitz
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Theodore S Lawrence
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Mukesh K Nyati
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
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2
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Scaria SM, Frumm SM, Vikram EP, Easow SA, Sheth AH, Shamir ER, Yu SK, Tward AD. Epimorphic regeneration in the mammalian tympanic membrane. NPJ Regen Med 2023; 8:58. [PMID: 37852984 PMCID: PMC10584978 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-023-00332-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult mammals are generally believed to have limited ability to regenerate complex tissues and instead, repair wounds by forming scars. In humans and across mammalian species, the tympanic membrane (TM) rapidly repairs perforations without intervention. Using mouse models, we demonstrate that the TM repairs itself through a process that bears many hallmarks of epimorphic regeneration rather than typical wound healing. Following injury, the TM forms a wound epidermis characterized by EGFR ligand expression and signaling. After the expansion of the wound epidermis that emerges from known stem cell regions of the TM, a multi-lineage blastema-like cellular mass is recruited. After two weeks, the tissue architecture of the TM is largely restored, but with disorganized collagen. In the months that follow, the organized and patterned collagen framework of the TM is restored resulting in scar-free repair. Finally, we demonstrate that deletion of Egfr in the epidermis results in failure to expand the wound epidermis, recruit the blastema-like cells, and regenerate normal TM structure. This work establishes the TM as a model of mammalian complex tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia M Scaria
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Stacey M Frumm
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Ellee P Vikram
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Sarah A Easow
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Amar H Sheth
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Eliah R Shamir
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Shengyang Kevin Yu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Aaron D Tward
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
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3
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Ankenbauer KE, Rao TC, Mattheyses AL, Bellis SL. Sialylation of EGFR by ST6GAL1 induces receptor activation and modulates trafficking dynamics. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105217. [PMID: 37660914 PMCID: PMC10520885 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant glycosylation is a hallmark of a cancer cell. One prevalent alteration is an enrichment in α2,6-linked sialylation of N-glycosylated proteins, a modification directed by the ST6GAL1 sialyltransferase. ST6GAL1 is upregulated in many malignancies including ovarian cancer. Prior studies have shown that the addition of α2,6 sialic acid to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activates this receptor, although the mechanism was largely unknown. To investigate the role of ST6GAL1 in EGFR activation, ST6GAL1 was overexpressed in the OV4 ovarian cancer line, which lacks endogenous ST6GAL1, or knocked-down in the OVCAR-3 and OVCAR-5 ovarian cancer lines, which have robust ST6GAL1 expression. Cells with high expression of ST6GAL1 displayed increased activation of EGFR and its downstream signaling targets, AKT and NFκB. Using biochemical and microscopy approaches, including total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we determined that the α2,6 sialylation of EGFR promoted its dimerization and higher order oligomerization. Additionally, ST6GAL1 activity was found to modulate EGFR trafficking dynamics following EGF-induced receptor activation. Specifically, EGFR sialylation enhanced receptor recycling to the cell surface following activation while simultaneously inhibiting lysosomal degradation. 3D widefield deconvolution microscopy confirmed that in cells with high ST6GAL1 expression, EGFR exhibited greater colocalization with Rab11 recycling endosomes and reduced colocalization with LAMP1-positive lysosomes. Collectively, our findings highlight a novel mechanism by which α2,6 sialylation promotes EGFR signaling by facilitating receptor oligomerization and recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E Ankenbauer
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Tejeshwar C Rao
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Alexa L Mattheyses
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.
| | - Susan L Bellis
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.
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4
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Nyati S, Young G, Speers C, Nyati MK, Rehemtulla A. Budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles-1 (BUB1) regulates EGFR signaling by reducing EGFR internalization. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 15:6011-6030. [PMID: 37399454 PMCID: PMC10373970 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
EGFR signaling initiates upon ligand binding which leads to activation and internalization of the receptor-ligand complex. Here, we evaluated if BUB1 impacted EGFR signaling by regulating EGFR receptor internalization and activation. BUB1 was ablated genomically (siRNA) or biochemically (2OH-BNPP1) in cells. EGF ligand was used to initiate EGFR signaling while disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) was used for cross linking cellular proteins. EGFR signaling was measured by western immunoblotting and receptor internalization was evaluated by fluorescent microscopy (pEGFR (pY1068) colocalization with early endosome marker EEA1). siRNA mediated BUB1 depletion led to an overall increase in total EGFR levels and more phospho-EGFR (Y845, Y1092, and Y1173) dimers while the amount of total EGFR (non-phospho) dimers remained unchanged. BUB1 inhibitor (BUB1i) decreased EGF mediated EGFR signaling including pEGFR Y845, pAKT S473 and pERK1/2 in a time dependent manner. Additionally, BUB1i also reduced EGF mediated pEGFR (Y845) dimers (asymmetric dimers) without affecting total EGFR dimers (symmetric dimers) indicating that dimerization of inactive EGFR is not affected by BUB1. Furthermore, BUB1i blocked EGF mediated EGFR degradation (increase in EGFR half-life) without impacting half-lives of HER2 or c-MET. BUB1i also reduced co-localization of pEGFR with EEA1 positive endosomes suggesting that BUB1 might modulate EGFR endocytosis. Our data provide evidence that BUB1 protein and its kinase activity may regulate EGFR activation, endocytosis, degradation, and downstream signaling without affecting other members of the receptor tyrosine kinase family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Nyati
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Grant Young
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Corey Speers
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Radiation Oncology, UH Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Mukesh K. Nyati
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Alnawaz Rehemtulla
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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5
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Ankenbauer KE, Rao TC, Mattheyses AL, Bellis SL. Sialylation of EGFR by ST6GAL1 induces receptor activation and modulates trafficking dynamics. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.03.543566. [PMID: 37398202 PMCID: PMC10312608 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.03.543566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant glycosylation is a hallmark of a cancer cell. One prevalent alteration is an enrichment in α2,6-linked sialylation of N-glycosylated proteins, a modification directed by the ST6GAL1 sialyltransferase. ST6GAL1 is upregulated in many malignancies including ovarian cancer. Prior studies have shown that the addition of α2,6 sialic acid to the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) activates this receptor, although the mechanism was largely unknown. To investigate the role of ST6GAL1 in EGFR activation, ST6GAL1 was overexpressed in the OV4 ovarian cancer line, which lacks endogenous ST6GAL1, or knocked down in the OVCAR-3 and OVCAR-5 ovarian cancer lines, which have robust ST6GAL1 expression. Cells with high expression of ST6GAL1 displayed increased activation of EGFR and its downstream signaling targets, AKT and NFκB. Using biochemical and microscopy approaches, including Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, we determined that the α2,6 sialylation of EGFR promoted its dimerization and higher order oligomerization. Additionally, ST6GAL1 activity was found to modulate EGFR trafficking dynamics following EGF-induced receptor activation. Specifically, EGFR sialylation enhanced receptor recycling to the cell surface following activation while simultaneously inhibiting lysosomal degradation. 3D widefield deconvolution microscopy confirmed that in cells with high ST6GAL1 expression, EGFR exhibited greater co-localization with Rab11 recycling endosomes and reduced co-localization with LAMP1-positive lysosomes. Collectively, our findings highlight a novel mechanism by which α2,6 sialylation promotes EGFR signaling by facilitating receptor oligomerization and recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E. Ankenbauer
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Tejeshwar C. Rao
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Alexa L. Mattheyses
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Susan L. Bellis
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
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6
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Rosenberg SC, Shanahan F, Yamazoe S, Kschonsak M, Zeng YJ, Lee J, Plise E, Yen I, Rose CM, Quinn JG, Gazzard LJ, Walters BT, Kirkpatrick DS, Staben ST, Foster SA, Malek S. Ternary complex dissociation kinetics contribute to mutant-selective EGFR degradation. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:S2451-9456(23)00030-2. [PMID: 36773603 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Targeted degradation of proteins by chimeric heterobifunctional degraders has emerged as a major drug discovery paradigm. Despite the increased interest in this approach, the criteria dictating target protein degradation by a degrader remain poorly understood, and potent target engagement by a degrader does not strongly correlate with target degradation. In this study, we present the biochemical characterization of an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) degrader that potently binds both wild-type and mutant EGFR, but only degrades EGFR mutant variants. Mechanistic studies reveal that ternary complex half-life strongly correlates with processive ubiquitination with purified components and mutant-selective degradation in cells. We present cryoelectron microscopy and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectroscopy data on wild-type and mutant EGFR ternary complexes, which demonstrate that potent target degradation can be achieved in the absence of stable compound-induced protein-protein interactions. These results highlight the importance of considering target conformation during degrader development as well as leveraging heterobifunctional ligand binding kinetics to achieve robust target degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott C Rosenberg
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Frances Shanahan
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Sayumi Yamazoe
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Marc Kschonsak
- Department of Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Yi J Zeng
- Department of Structural Biology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - James Lee
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Emile Plise
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Ivana Yen
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Christopher M Rose
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics and Lipidomics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - John G Quinn
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Lewis J Gazzard
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Benjamin T Walters
- Department of Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Donald S Kirkpatrick
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics and Lipidomics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Steven T Staben
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Scott A Foster
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
| | - Shiva Malek
- Department of Discovery Oncology, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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7
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Purcell E, Owen S, Prantzalos E, Radomski A, Carman N, Lo TW, Zeinali M, Subramanian C, Ramnath N, Nagrath S. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Mutations Carried in Extracellular Vesicle-Derived Cargo Mirror Disease Status in Metastatic Non-small Cell Lung Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:724389. [PMID: 34692681 PMCID: PMC8526851 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.724389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), identifying the presence of sensitizing and resistance epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations dictates treatment plans. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as abundant, stable potential liquid biopsy targets that offer the potential to quantify EGFR mutations in NSCLC patients at the RNA and protein level at multiple points through treatment. In this study, we present a systematic approach for serial mutation profiling of 34 EV samples from 10 metastatic NSCLC patients with known EGFR mutations through treatment. Using western blot and droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), sensitizing (exon 19 deletion, L858R) mutations were detected in EV-Protein, and both sensitizing and resistance (T790M) mutations were quantified in EV-RNA. EGFR mutations were detected in EV-Protein from four patients at multiple time points through treatment. Using EV-RNA, tumor biopsy matched sensitizing mutations were detected in 90% of patients and resistance mutations in 100% of patients. Finally, mutation burden in EV-RNA at each time point was compared to disease status, described as either stable or progressing. For 6/7 patients who were longitudinally monitored through treatment, EV mutation burden mirrored clinical trajectory. When comparing mutation detection between EV-RNA and ctDNA using ddPCR, EVs had a better detection rate for exon 19 deletions and the L858R point mutation. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that integrating EV analysis into liquid biopsy mutation screening has the potential to advance beyond the current standard of care "rule in" test. The multi-analyte testing allows future integration of EGFR mutation monitoring with additional EV-markers for a comprehensive patient monitoring biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Purcell
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Sarah Owen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Emily Prantzalos
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Abigail Radomski
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Nayri Carman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Ting-Wen Lo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Mina Zeinali
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Chitra Subramanian
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Nithya Ramnath
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Sunitha Nagrath
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,*Correspondence: Sunitha Nagrath,
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8
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Kim MS, Kim SH, Yang SH, Kim MS. miR-4487 Enhances Gefitinib-Mediated Ubiquitination and Autophagic Degradation of EGFR in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells by Targeting USP37. Cancer Res Treat 2021; 54:445-457. [PMID: 34352998 PMCID: PMC9016303 DOI: 10.4143/crt.2021.622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose With the identification of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations in non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, EGFR–tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are being used widely as the first-line of treatment in NSCLC. These inhibitors block auto-phosphorylation of activated EGFR by competing with ATP binding and mediate EGFR degradation independent of exogenous epidermal growth factor, which is associated with the mutation variants of EGFR. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the TKI-mediated EGFR degradation are still unclear. Materials and Methods To examine the physiological roles of miR-4487 and ubiquitin-specific peptidase 37 (USP37) in gefitinib-mediated EGFR degradation in NSCLC cells, multiple NSCLC cell lines were applied. The level of EGFR expression, apoptosis marker, and autophagic flux were determined by western blot. Expression level of miR-4487 and cell-cycle arrest was analyzed by TaqMan assay and flow cytometry respectively. Results We found that gefitinib mediates EGFR degradation under normal culture conditions, and is dependent on autophagic flux and the mutation variants of EGFR. Gefitinib reduced expression levels of USP37, which mediated EGFR degradation similar to gefitinib. Our results also showed a gefitinib-mediated increase in endogenous miR-4487 level and presented evidence for the direct targeting of USP37 by miR-4487, resulting in the sequential enhancement of ubiquitination, autophagy, and EGFR degradation. Thus, the depletion of USP37 and overexpression of miR-4487 led to an increase in gefitinib-mediated apoptotic cell death. Conclusion These data suggest that miR-4487 is a potential target for treating NSCLC, and miR-4487/USP37-regulated EGFR degradation is a determinant for developing gefitinib resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Seong Kim
- Department of Oral Physiology, Institute of Biomaterial-Implant, School of Dentistry, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea.,Wonkwang Dental Research Institute, School of Dentistry, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - So Hui Kim
- Department of Carbon Convergence Engineering, College of Engineering, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - Sei Hoon Yang
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
| | - Min Seuk Kim
- Department of Oral Physiology, Institute of Biomaterial-Implant, School of Dentistry, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
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9
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Giron P, Eggermont C, Noeparast A, Vandenplas H, Teugels E, Forsyth R, De Wever O, Aza‐Blanc P, Gutierrez GJ, De Grève J. Targeting USP13-mediated drug tolerance increases the efficacy of EGFR inhibition of mutant EGFR in non-small cell lung cancer. Int J Cancer 2021; 148:2579-2593. [PMID: 33210294 PMCID: PMC8048518 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.33404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) induce sensitivity to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Despite impressive clinical responses, patients ultimately relapse as a reservoir of drug-tolerant cells persist, which ultimately leads to acquired resistance mechanisms. We performed an unbiased high-throughput siRNA screen to identify proteins that abrogate the response of EGFR-mutant NSCLC to EGFR-targeted therapy. The deubiquitinase USP13 was a top hit resulting from this screen. Targeting USP13 increases the sensitivity to EGFR inhibition with small molecules in vitro and in vivo. USP13 selectively stabilizes mutant EGFR in a peptidase-independent manner by counteracting the action of members of the Cbl family of E3 ubiquitin ligases. We conclude that USP13 is a strong mutant EGFR-specific cotarget that could improve the treatment efficacy of EGFR-targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Giron
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
- Laboratory of Pathophysiological Cell Signaling, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Bioengineering SciencesVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
- Center of Medical GeneticsUZ BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Carolien Eggermont
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
- Laboratory of Pathophysiological Cell Signaling, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Bioengineering SciencesVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Amir Noeparast
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Hugo Vandenplas
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Erik Teugels
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Ramses Forsyth
- Laboratory of Anatomical and Experimental PathologyUZ BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Olivier De Wever
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
| | - Pedro Aza‐Blanc
- Sanford‐Burnham‐Prebys Medical Discovery InstituteLa JollaCaliforniaUSA
| | - Gustavo J. Gutierrez
- Laboratory of Pathophysiological Cell Signaling, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Bioengineering SciencesVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - Jacques De Grève
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Oncology; Oncology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and PharmacyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
- Center of Medical GeneticsUZ BrusselBrusselsBelgium
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10
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Ray P, Raghunathan K, Ahsan A, Allam US, Shukla S, Basrur V, Veatch S, Lawrence TS, Nyati MK, Ray D. Ubiquitin ligase SMURF2 enhances epidermal growth factor receptor stability and tyrosine-kinase inhibitor resistance. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:12661-12673. [PMID: 32669362 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.013519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of activating epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations spurred the use of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), such as erlotinib, as the first-line treatment of lung cancers. We previously reported that differential degradation of TKI-sensitive (e.g. L858R) and resistant (T790M) EGFR mutants upon erlotinib treatment correlates with drug sensitivity. We also reported that SMAD ubiquitination regulatory factor 2 (SMURF2) ligase activity is important in stabilizing EGFR. However, the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. Here, using in vitro and in vivo ubiquitination assays, MS, and superresolution microscopy, we show SMURF2-EGFR functional interaction is important for EGFR stability and response to TKI. We demonstrate that L858R/T790M EGFR is preferentially stabilized by SMURF2-UBCH5 (an E3-E2)-mediated polyubiquitination. We identified four lysine residues as the sites of ubiquitination and showed that replacement of one of them with acetylation-mimicking glutamine increases the sensitivity of mutant EGFR to erlotinib-induced degradation. We show that SMURF2 extends membrane retention of EGF-bound EGFR, whereas SMURF2 knockdown increases receptor sorting to lysosomes. In lung cancer cell lines, SMURF2 overexpression increased EGFR levels, improving TKI tolerance, whereas SMURF2 knockdown decreased EGFR steady-state levels and sensitized lung cancer cells. Overall, we propose that SMURF2-mediated polyubiquitination of L858R/T790M EGFR competes with acetylation-mediated receptor internalization that correlates with enhanced receptor stability; therefore, disruption of the E3-E2 complex may be an attractive target to overcome TKI resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paramita Ray
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Krishnan Raghunathan
- Department of Biophysics, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Aarif Ahsan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Uday Sankar Allam
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Shirish Shukla
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Venkatesha Basrur
- Department of Pathology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Sarah Veatch
- Department of Biophysics, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Theodore S Lawrence
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Mukesh K Nyati
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Dipankar Ray
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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11
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Ayati A, Moghimi S, Salarinejad S, Safavi M, Pouramiri B, Foroumadi A. A review on progression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors as an efficient approach in cancer targeted therapy. Bioorg Chem 2020; 99:103811. [PMID: 32278207 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The identification of molecular agents inhibiting specific functions in cancer cells progression is considered as one of the most successful plans in cancer treatment. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) over-activation is observed in a vast number of cancers, so, targeting EGFR and its downstream signaling cascades are regarded as a rational and valuable approach in cancer therapy. Several synthetic EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been evaluated in recent years, mostly exhibited clinical efficacy in relevant models and categorized into first, second, third and fourth-generation. However, studies are still ongoing to find more efficient EGFR inhibitors in light of the resistance to the current inhibitors. In this review, the importance of targeting EGFR signaling pathway in cancer therapy and related epigenetic mutations are highlighted. The recent advances on the discovery and development of different EGFR inhibitors and the use of various therapeutic strategies such as multi-targeting agents and combination therapies have also been reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adileh Ayati
- Drug Design and Development Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Setareh Moghimi
- Drug Design and Development Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Salarinejad
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maliheh Safavi
- Department of Biotechnology, Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3353-5111, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behjat Pouramiri
- Drug Design and Development Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Foroumadi
- Drug Design and Development Research Center, The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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12
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Sarcar B, Gimbrone NT, Wright G, Remsing Rix LL, Gordian ER, Rix U, Chiappori AA, Reuther GW, Santiago-Cardona PG, Muñoz-Antonia T, Cress WD. Characterization of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) P848L, an unusual EGFR variant present in lung cancer patients, in a murine Ba/F3 model. FEBS Open Bio 2019; 9:1689-1704. [PMID: 31314158 PMCID: PMC6768113 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer patients with mutations in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) benefit from treatments targeting tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). However, both intrinsic and acquired resistance of tumors to TKIs are common, and EGFR variants have been identified that are resistant to multiple TKIs. In the present study, we characterized selected EGFR variants previously observed in lung cancer patients and expressed in a murine bone marrow pro-B Ba/F3 cell model. Among these EGFR variants, we report that an exon 20 deletion/insertion mutation S768insVGH is resistant to erlotinib (a first-generation TKI), but sensitive to osimertinib (a third-generation TKI). We also characterized a rare exon 21 germline variant, EGFR P848L, which transformed Ba/F3 cells and conferred resistance to multiple EGFR-targeting TKIs. Our analysis revealed that P848L (a) does not bind erlotinib; (b) is turned over less rapidly than L858R (a common tumor-derived EGFR mutation); (c) is not autophosphorylated at Tyr 1045 [the major docking site for Cbl proto-oncogene (c-Cbl) binding]; and (d) does not bind c-Cbl. Using viability assays including 300 clinically relevant targeted compounds, we observed that Ba/F3 cells transduced with EGFR P848L, S768insVGH, or L858R have very different drug-sensitivity profiles. In particular, EGFR P848L, but not L858R or S768insVGH, was sensitive to multiple Janus kinase 1/2 inhibitors. In contrast, cells driven by L858R, but not by P848L, were sensitive to multikinase MAPK/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase and ERK inhibitors including EGFR-specific TKIs. These observations suggest that continued investigation of rare TKI-resistant EGFR variants is warranted to identify optimal treatments for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhaswati Sarcar
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas T Gimbrone
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Gabriela Wright
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lily L Remsing Rix
- Department of Drug Discovery, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Edna R Gordian
- Department of Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Uwe Rix
- Department of Drug Discovery, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Alberto A Chiappori
- Department of Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA.,Department of Thoracic Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Gary W Reuther
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | | | - Teresita Muñoz-Antonia
- Department of Tumor Biology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - William Douglas Cress
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA.,Department of Thoracic Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
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13
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Lypova N, Telang S, Chesney J, Imbert-Fernandez Y. Increased 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase-3 activity in response to EGFR signaling contributes to non-small cell lung cancer cell survival. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:10530-10543. [PMID: 31126985 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.007784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Constitutive activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) because of somatic mutations of the EGFR gene is commonly observed in tumors of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Consequently, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) targeting the EGFR are among the most effective therapies for patients with sensitizing EGFR mutations. Clinical responses to the EGFR-targeting TKIs are evaluated through 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose (18FDG)-PET uptake, which is decreased in patients responding favorably to therapy and is positively correlated with survival. Recent studies have reported that EGFR signaling drives glucose metabolism in NSCLC cells; however, the precise downstream effectors required for this EGFR-driven metabolic effect are largely unknown. 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFKFB3) is an essential glycolytic regulator that is consistently overexpressed in lung cancer. Here, we found that PFKFB3 is an essential target of EGFR signaling and that PFKFB3 activation is required for glycolysis stimulation upon EGFR activation. We demonstrate that exposing NSCLC cells harboring either WT or mutated EGFR to EGF rapidly increases PFKFB3 phosphorylation, expression, and activity and that PFKFB3 inhibition markedly reduces the EGF-mediated increase in glycolysis. Furthermore, we found that prolonged NSCLC cell exposure to the TKI erlotinib drives PFKFB3 expression and that chemical PFKFB3 inhibition synergizes with erlotinib in increasing erlotinib's anti-proliferative activity in NSCLC cells. We conclude that PFKFB3 has a key role in mediating glucose metabolism and survival of NSCLC cells in response to EGFR signaling. These results support the potential clinical utility of using PFKFB3 inhibitors in combination with EGFR-TKIs to manage NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadiia Lypova
- From the James Graham Brown Cancer Center, Division of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
| | - Sucheta Telang
- From the James Graham Brown Cancer Center, Division of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
| | - Jason Chesney
- From the James Graham Brown Cancer Center, Division of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
| | - Yoannis Imbert-Fernandez
- From the James Graham Brown Cancer Center, Division of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40202
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14
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Hammoud MK, Yosef HK, Lechtonen T, Aljakouch K, Schuler M, Alsaidi W, Daho I, Maghnouj A, Hahn S, El-Mashtoly SF, Gerwert K. Raman micro-spectroscopy monitors acquired resistance to targeted cancer therapy at the cellular level. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15278. [PMID: 30323297 PMCID: PMC6189084 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33682-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Monitoring the drug efficacy or resistance in vitro is usually carried out by measuring the response of single few proteins. However, observation of single proteins instead of an integral cell response may lead to results that are not consistent with patient’s response to a drug. We present a Raman spectroscopic method that detects the integral cell response to drugs such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with EGFR mutations develop acquired resistance to first (erlotinib)- and third (osimertinib)-generation TKIs. Large erlotinib-induced differences were detected by Raman micro-spectroscopy in NSCLC cells without T790M EGFR mutation but not in cells with this mutation. Additionally, Raman difference spectra detected the response of NSCLC cells with T790M EGFR mutation to second- (neratinib) and third-generation (osimertinib) TKIs, and the resistance of cells with T790M/C797S EGFR mutation to osimertinib. Thus, the in vitro Raman results indicated that NSCLC cells with T790M and T790M/C797S EGFR mutations are resistant to erlotinib- and osimertinib, respectively, consistent with the observed responses of patients. This study shows the potential of Raman micro-spectroscopy to monitor drug resistance and opens a new door to in vitro companion diagnostics for screening personalized therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad K Hammoud
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Hesham K Yosef
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Tatjana Lechtonen
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Karim Aljakouch
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Martin Schuler
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Wissam Alsaidi
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ibrahim Daho
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Abdelouahid Maghnouj
- Department of Molecular GI-Oncology, Clinical Research Center, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephan Hahn
- Department of Molecular GI-Oncology, Clinical Research Center, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Klaus Gerwert
- Department of Biophysics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
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15
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Beaumont A, Dayde D, Hatat AS, Barrial C, Perron P, Eymin B, Gazzeri S. ARF promotes the degradation of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor by the lysosome. Exp Cell Res 2018; 370:264-272. [PMID: 29959911 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) signaling regulates multiple cellular processes including proliferation, survival and apoptosis, and is attenuated by lysosomal receptor degradation. EGFR is a potent oncogene and activating mutations of EGFR are critical determinants of oncogenic transformation as well as therapeutic targets in non-small cell lung cancer. We previously demonstrated that wild type and mutant EGFRs repress the expression of the ARF tumor suppressor to promote the survival of lung tumor cells. In this study, using transient transfection systems in CHO EGFR-null cells as well as in various lung tumor cell lines carrying wild type or activated mutant EGFR, we show that ARF downregulates the expression of EGFR protein by reducing its half life. In wild type EGFR cells, ARF promotes canonical lysosomal degradation of the receptor through enhanced phosphorylation of EGFR-Y1045 and Cbl-Y731. In contrast, in mutant EGFR cells, ARF induces EGFR degradation by activating a non-canonical AKT-dependent lysosomal pathway. Taken together, these results uncover a feedback loop by which ARF may control EGFR turnover to restrain oncogenic signaling. They also highlight distinct degradation promoting pathways between wild type and mutant EGFRs in response to ARF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anais Beaumont
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Delphine Dayde
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Hatat
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Celine Barrial
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Pascal Perron
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Beatrice Eymin
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France
| | - Sylvie Gazzeri
- Team "RNA splicing, cell signaling and response to therapies", Institute for Advanced Biosciences, INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Université Grenoble Alpes 38042 Grenoble Cedex 09, France.
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