Correlates of wife assault in Hong Kong Chinese families

Chinese Women's Acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women

Few studies have empirically examined factors influencing attitudes toward acceptance of intimate partner violence (IPV), and no study has yet studied the topic in China. We empirically test the effects of attitudes toward gender roles and exposure to violence during childhood on the acceptance of IPV and the moderating effects of education and income on these relationships. Using survey data collected from 600 Chinese women from southern China, we found that education and income moderate the relationship between belief in gender equality and acceptance of IPV. The effect of exposure to parental physical violence on the acceptance of IPV is moderated by education.

Relationship dynamics associated with emotional IPV perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis

Emotional intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most common form of IPV and frequently co-occurs with other forms of IPV. Risk factors of IPV can give insight to potential pathways and consequences associated with IPV, enhancing treatment efforts. This meta-analysis examined relationship dynamics associated with IPV perpetration and victimization. Our study found victimization of controlling behavior, demand/withdrawal relationship pattern, perpetration of controlling behavior, jealousy, relationship distress, perpetrator's power in the relationship, anxious attachment, and traditional gender roles were all significantly associated with IPV perpetration. For IPV victimization, victimization of controlling behaviors, fear of the perpetrator, relationship distress, anxious and avoidant attachment, and traditional gender roles were all found to be significantly associated. Relationship satisfaction was found to be negatively associated with emotional IPV perpetration and victimization. Implications for clinicians are discussed.

In-law psychological aggression and its impacts on women's health

Conflicts between couples and their parents-in-law are a common phenomenon in Chinese families. In this study, in-law psychological aggression (InPA) victimization and its association with intimate partner violence (IPV), women's health, and gender role valuation were examined. A household face-to-face survey with random sampling was conducted, and a total of 260 married Chinese women with parents-in-law were recruited. Among the participants, 11.2% and 43.1% had experienced InPA victimization and IPV victimization, respectively, and 7.3% had experienced both. Women's daily contact with parents-in-law, anxiety symptoms, demand to obey parents-in-law, and the low valuation of the male role significantly positively related to InPA victimization, whereas discussions of in-law conflict with husbands were significantly negatively related to InPA victimization. Therefore, in developing interventions for women experiencing InPA victimization, the role of the husband in InPA victimization and the risk of co-occurring InPA and IPV should be considered. These findings reflect the need to raise awareness about the influence of culture on gender roles, the harm caused by InPA victimization, and the urgent need to help Chinese women who are experiencing in-law conflict.

"Whose Fault Is It?" How Rural Chinese Women Explain Intimate Partner Violence: A Qualitative Study

Women are often the victims of intimate partner violence (IPV). Though China has established its first statute against domestic violence, the service developments for victims fall behind. It is important to assess community members' perceptions of what causes IPV to create interventions to prevent and address IPV. This study completed the Short Explanatory Model Interview (SEMI) among a subset sample from a large epidemiology study in rural Sichuan China. The social ecological model was applied to analyze qualitative interviews. Among 339 participants, the average age was 46.01 ± 12.42 years old. There were 31.86% of them had been educated, 14.75% of them had migrant worker partners, and 49.26% of them had experienced violence from their partners in the last year. There were 252 participants attributed IPV to individual factors, and they primarily discussed the social characteristics, behaviors, personalities or even health problems of the husband or the wife in the vignette. Under this theme, there were 86 participants blaming the victim for being anxious, social disconnectedness or lazy; and there were 166 participants blaming to the perpetrator being abusive, irresponsibility, lack of understanding, and cheating. There were 44 women believed the cause was relational, in which there were 41 participants attributed the problem to the broken relationship between the couple and three participants attributed to the lack of support. There were 28 participants believed the cause was communal and societal, such as being poor, family problems, fate, and believed IPV was a common scene. There were 15 participants could not identify the cause of IPV. These participants usually provided very brief responses and barely had insight on violent behaviors or confidence in discussing the cause. Our findings offer a direction for understanding the rural Chinese women's beliefs about the etiology of IPV to better develop interventions which must consider raising a public awareness campaign about the risk factors of IPV and focus on reducing self-blame among victims.

Characteristics of Intimate Partner Violence in China: Gender Symmetry, Mutuality, and Associated Factors

The primary research focus on female victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), coupled with a lack of discussion on mutual violence between intimate partners, has affected our understanding of IPV in China. In the current study, we aim to examine gender symmetry and mutuality in IPV in China. We also produce the first age-specific and gender-specific prevalence estimates for different types of IPV. The associations between IPV, demographic factors, personal factors, and relationship factors are also examined. We analyzed a set of data from 7,466 households in six regions in China collected between 2009 and 2010. Three-way cross-tab analyses and multinomial logistic regressions were performed to examine the prevalence of IPV in the preceding year by gender and age groups and its associations with different individual and relationship factors, respectively. For sexual violence and severe physical assault and injury, most victims experienced unidirectional violence. For psychological aggression and minor physical assault, mutual violence was more likely to occur among intimate partners. Gender symmetry was found in regard to physical assault and psychological aggression. There is gender asymmetry in sexual violence between Chinese intimate partners. Older individuals are less likely to be victims or perpetrators of IPV or to be involved in mutual violence. Factors associated with IPV show that mutual violence is generally analogous to violence perpetration. To prevent IPV, it is important to understand gender symmetry and mutuality of IPV in China. We need to involve both men and women in violence prevention and develop age-appropriate programs in the future.

From Exposure to Family Violence During Childhood to Depression in Adulthood: A Path Analysis on the Mediating Effects of Intimate Partner Violence

Literature shows a link between adverse childhood experiences and subsequent depression, but there is a lack of concrete evidence on whether victimization of intimate partner violence (IPV) in adulthood plays significant roles in that link. This study aimed to test the mediating effect of adulthood IPV victimization in the associations between exposure to family violence in childhood and adulthood depression. Exposure to family violence in childhood was operationalized as one's experiences of child abuse and witnessing parental IPV in childhood. This study also tested the effects of other violence-related factors from the Personal and Relationships Profile, including one's antisocial personality, borderline personality, dominance, posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, and violence approval, on the associations. A path analysis was conducted a cross-sectional survey study sample recruited between 2009 and 2010. The sample was 8,807 adults selected with a multistage stratified sampling procedure from six cities in China (43.4% male; M age = 40.61 years, SD = 8.93). The main outcome was participants' depressive symptoms during the past 2 weeks. As predicted, the path model suggests that IPV victimization significantly mediated the associations between exposure to family violence in childhood and adulthood depression. Violence approval and PTS symptoms, but not the other violence-related factors, significantly mediated the above associations. Findings warrant the need to identify individuals with exposure to family violence in early stages, and to provide them with suitable intervention programs to prevent subsequent IPV as well as to minimize the negative impacts of the exposure to family violence in childhood.

A Moderated Mediation Analysis of Condom Negotiation and Sexual Orientation on the Relationship Between Sexual Coercion and Condom Use in Chinese Young Women: Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

The high prevalence of sexual coercion against young women has become a significant public health issue in China and other regions around the world. Young women are also especially vulnerable to engage in inconsistent condom use because of low sexual control. Although the relationship between sexual coercion and condom use has been widely demonstrated, the mechanism of this relationship is still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to test condom negotiation as a mediator of the relationship between sexual coercion and condom use in young Chinese women and to investigate whether sexual orientation is a moderator.

METHODS

Data were collected using web-based questionnaires and a total of 402 young Chinese women were included in the analysis. Sexual coercion was measured using a subscale of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales and condom negotiation was measured using a subscale of the UCLA Multidimensional Condom Attitudes Scale. Sexual orientation was assessed using an item adopted from a previous study and condom use was calculated by the total number of times condoms were used divided by the total number of times sexual intercourse was engaged in during the past 3 months. Moderated mediation analyses were conducted with sexual coercion as the independent variable, condom use consistency as the dependent variable, condom negotiation as the mediator variable, and sexual orientation as a moderator.

RESULTS

The moderated mediation analysis indicated that the relationship between sexual coercion and condom use was significantly mediated by condom negotiation and moderated by sexual orientation. The indirect effect of condom negotiation was significant in heterosexual women (indirect effect: -0.80, 95% boot CI -1.67 to -0.36) but not in sexual minority women (indirect effect: -0.33, 95% boot CI -0.86 to 0.31).

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that sexual orientation meaningfully affects the relationship between sexual coercion and condom negotiation. The difference in the mechanism of the relation between sexual coercion and sexual behaviors in heterosexual and sexual minority women should be considered for future research and interventions aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of sexual coercion.

Validation of the scale for assessing the psychological vulnerability and its association with health of intimate partner violence victims in Chinese young adult population

The Women’s Experience with Battering (WEB) scale is a self-report instrument that uses a 10-item Likert-type scale to measure IPV victims’ cognitive and affective experience of battering. This study aimed to validate the Chinese version of the WEB scale using gender-neutral questions, Experience of Battering Scale (Chinese) (EBS-C), to assess the psychological vulnerability of victims of intimate partner violence (IPV). The study adopted a range of methods, including translation and back translation, expert reviews, cognitive debriefing, and test-retest reliability assessment. The EBS-C was validated in a purposive convenience sample of 718 Chinese-speaking participants (male = 362; female = 356) aged 18–24 (mean age = 21.4) in Hong Kong. The results of CFA showed a good model fit: CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .03. The EBS-C was also found to be significantly associated with the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; r = .13–.17, p < .01), depression (BDI-II: r = .15, p < .01), anxiety (GAD-7: r = .17, p < .01), interpersonal support (ISEL-12: r = -.27, p < .01), relationship satisfaction (RAS: r = -.36, p < .01), and self-esteem (RSES: r = -.22, p < .01). The study demonstrated the EBS-C to be a reliable and valid measure for assessing the psychological vulnerability of IPV victims. It is thus useful for identifying the risks such individuals face by assessing their experience of fear, danger, and disempowerment in the intimate relationship relative to abusive incident-based measures alone. The EBS-C will also be useful for developing effective treatments to address the psychological vulnerability resulting from IPV and will facilitate cross-cultural comparative research aimed at enriching our knowledge of IPV victimization.

Education, Perception Factors, and Prevention of Intimate Partner Violence: Empirical Research on Chinese University Students' Perceptions and Attitudes Concerning Intimate Partner Violence

Research on perceptions and attitudes regarding intimate partner violence (IPV), a prominent predictor of IPV, is limited, and surveys on the relationships of the influencing factors are even rarer. Using a convenience sample of 2,057 students and assessed by the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale, this study explored Chinese university students' perceptions and attitudes concerning IPV to improve IPV prevention programs. It focused on the existences of the different perceptions and attitudes regarding gender, residence, major, and age under the same condition of educational attainment. Significant gender differences were found, with female students possessing better perceptions, which indicated that with the same education levels, the perceptions of females were better than those of males. Significant differences were also found for the first time in the literature between science students and arts students, with the latter holding better attitudes. No significant differences were seen between students from rural areas and students from urban areas, suggesting that with the same educational attainment, there were no perception differences between rural and urban residents. No significant perception differences were found among freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, which revealed that neither university education nor urban life had a significant effect on perceptions and attitudes concerning IPV for students who had finished high school education. In conclusion, the results of the current study indicated that among the other factors such as gender, residence, and age, education was the most powerful factor influencing perceptions and attitudes concerning IPV.

Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is a serious public health problem in the world. It is imperative to examine risk factors for IPV victimization.

OBJECTIVE

This meta-analysis aimed to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment (CM) and IPV victimization and investigate the moderating effects of gender and marital status.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Examination of the literature produced a sample of 56 effect sizes (N = 23,127) for review.

METHODS

PsycINFO, PsycArticles, EBSCO-ERIC, Medline, Google Scholar, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses databases were systematically searched until March 31, 2018. Forty-six eligible studies were included in the meta-analysis. Random effects model was used for meta-analysis of the studies.

RESULTS

Results indicated a significant association between total CM and IPV victimization (r = .18, p < .001). Further subgroup analyses revealed that all four types of CM (childhood physical abuse, psychological abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect) were positively related to IPV victimization (r = .19, .18, .17, and .12, respectively). Moreover, the moderation analyses revealed that the association between CM and IPV victimization was stronger for dating couples than for married ones. However, this relation did not show significant difference between males and females.

CONCLUSIONS

There is an association between CM and IPV victimization, and it is moderated by marital status.

The Associations Between Perceived Harsh and Controlling Parenting, Shame Proneness, and Psychological Aggression Among Chinese Dating Couples

Using dyadic data from 198 dating heterosexual couples (aged 18-31) in Mainland China, the current study tested the direct associations between perceptions of their parents' harsh and controlling parenting and psychological aggression and indirect associations via shame proneness. Results demonstrated that for women, greater perceived harsh and controlling parenting was directly related to higher levels of psychological aggression and indirectly related through higher levels of shame proneness. For men, perceived harsh and controlling parenting was not related to either shame proneness or psychological aggression. These findings provide initial insights into how shame, traditionally a valued and celebrated emotion in Chinese culture, can be maladaptive by contributing to psychological aggression in young adult intimate relationships. Although these findings merit further testing, especially for men, this study provides evidence that shame is an important mechanism for psychological dating violence.

Family Polyvictimization and Elevated Levels of Addiction and Psychopathology Among Parents in a Chinese Household Sample

When studying the co-occurring victimization within a family, current literature often focuses on individual violence and fails to cover more than two forms of violence. This study fills the research gap by using families, instead of individuals, as units and investigating the prevalence of family polyvictimization. Family polyvictimization is defined as the co-occurrence of child victimization, intimate partner violence (IPV) between parents, and elder abuse within a family. This study analyzed a set of data from 7,466 households, with at least a child under 18 years of age, in six regions in China collected during 2009 and 2010. Descriptive analyses and ordinal logistic regressions were performed to explore the prevalence of family polyvictimization, as well as its associations with parents' addictive behaviors and negative health factors. The lifetime prevalence and the past-year prevalence of family polyvictimization was 2.53% and 1.09%, respectively. Parents from a polyvictimized family were more likely to report addictive behaviors, and to show poorer mental health and more posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms than those who were less exposed to violence. Findings show the importance of the whole-family approach to screening multiple types of violence within a family when one type is detected, as well as the potential usefulness of identifying at-risk families among parents with addictive behaviors and poor mental health.

Non-Traditional Wives With Traditional Husbands: Gender Ideology and Husband-to-Wife Physical Violence in Chinese Society

Feminist scholars have argued that husband gender traditionalism is one of the root causes of spousal violence against women. Using couple-level data from Hong Kong ( N = 871 couples), this article argues that a second mechanism-couple gender value mismatch-also explains husband-to-wife physical assault. Our findings show that a husband's gender traditionalism is positively associated with husband-to-wife physical assault only when the husband is coupled with a wife who has non-traditional gender attitudes. Similarly, egalitarian gender attitudes in wives are positively associated with husband-to-wife physical assault only when a non-traditional wife is coupled with a traditional husband.

Instruments to Assess Intimate Partner Violence: A Scoping Review of the Literature

A scoping review was conducted to map existing evidence on strategies to measure male and female intimate partner violence (IPV). PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Scopus databases were searched from inception to 2014. There were 1,098 studies analyzed. To assess IPV, the most commonly followed strategy was the creation of study-specific questions (30.3%). The Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) were the most frequent choice among generic instruments, whereas for clinical samples, the preferred tool was the Abuse Assessment Screen. Prevalence estimates were generally higher when the original versions of the CTS were used. This review provides a guiding frame of what exists in the IPV measurement literature, showing trends in the choice for a particular instrument according to administration methods and settings.

Assessing the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence in the Chinese Population

The study undertook the development and validation of a risk assessment tool for the evaluation of risk of intimate partner violence (IPV) among the Chinese population. A total of 2,225 men from a representative Chinese population in Hong Kong were assessed with their experience of IPV perpetration in the year preceding the interview. With the use of the split-half validation procedure, six factors that were associated with IPV perpetration were selected. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.76. The Chinese Risk Assessment Tool for Perpetrators (CRAT-P) is a brief and easy to use assessment tool for evaluating IPV risk in the Chinese population.

Risk and protective factors of same-sex intimate partner violence in Hong Kong

Numerous studies have assessed risk and protective factors for intimate partner violence (IPV) among heterosexual couples around the globe. Nevertheless, few have addressed the same issue among same-sex couples, especially in cultures where same-sex intimate relationships have gained little acceptance. This exploratory study evaluated the substantial risk and protective factors for same-sex IPV based on gender-neutral theories. Three hundred and six Hong Kong residents who have been in a same-sex romantic relationship completed a web-based questionnaire. Logistic regression analyses indicated that relationship conflict and poor anger management were risk factors both of psychological and physical perpetration. Dominance and substance abuse were respectively associated with psychological aggression and physical battering despite their small effect sizes. Psychological aggression was also found to mediate the relationship between conflict and physical assault, and that between anger management and physical assault. Interventions related to the array of risk and protective factors were discussed and recommended.

Prevalence and correlates of intimate partner violence among older Chinese couples in Hong Kong

BACKGROUND

This study examined the prevalence and risk factors for intimate partner violence (IPV) among Chinese older couples in Hong Kong.

METHODS

A population representative sample was surveyed.

RESULTS

The prevalence of IPV in older adults was found to be quite high in the present study, with a lifetime prevalence ranging from 1.4% to 53.6%, and a past year prevalence ranging from 0.4% to 36.1% for various forms of aggression. Results of logistic regression analyses showed that older persons who were younger among this "older" group, who were not employed, who had a substance abuse problem, who had witnessed parental violence during their childhood, who had a criminal history, who had a low level of assertiveness, who had an anger management problem, who experienced a low level of social support and/or experienced stressful conditions, were all more likely to fall victims of IPV.

CONCLUSION

It is suggested that IPV in older couples is a complex phenomenon that is closely intertwined with other forms of domestic violence, including spousal violence, child abuse, in-law conflicts, and elderly adult abuse. Thus, before we have more definitive and concrete evidence that IPV in older couples should definitively come under the category of elder abuse or IPV, it is advisable to treat it under its own separate category of family violence.

Evaluating the risk of child abuse: the Child Abuse Risk Assessment Scale (CARAS)

The present study developed the Child Abuse Risk Assessment Scale (CARAS), an actuarial instrument for the assessment of the risk of physical child abuse. Data of 2,363 Chinese parents (47.7% male) living in Hong Kong were used in the analyses. Participants were individually interviewed with a questionnaire assessing their perpetration of child abuse and some theoretically or empirically tested factors associated with child abuse. Using the split-half validation procedure, the 5-factor, 64-item CARAS was created and validated. When applying to the second half of the split sample, the CARAS had a sensitivity of 81.9%, a specificity of 77.8%, and an overall accuracy of 78.1%. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was .91. Overall, our findings showed that the CARAS is a simple, systematic and validated instrument identifying at-risk population of child maltreatment in Chinese societies.

Predicting the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence: The Chinese Risk Assessment Tool for Victims

The present study reports the development and validation of the Chinese Risk Assessment Tool for Victims (CRAT-V), an actuarial instrument for the prediction of intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in a Chinese population. Data were collected from a representative sample of 2,708 Chinese women who were married or cohabiting in Hong Kong. All participants were interviewed with a questionnaire assessing their experience of IPV victimization and personal or family factors related to IPV. As measured by the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS 2), the base rates of preceding-year physical and sexual IPV victimization were 4.6 % and 3.6 %, respectively. Using a cross-validation procedure, the present study developed a 5-factor instrument with one half of the randomly split sample and validated the resulting tool with the other half. The CRAT-V had a sensitivity of 74.0 %, a specificity of 68.3 %, an overall accuracy of 68.7 %, and an area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve of 0.75 when administered on the second half of sample. Overall, the CRAT-V may serve as a straightforward, systematic, and easy-to-administer instrument tailor-made for Chinese populations for the assessment of risk of IPV victimization against women.

Gender symmetry in the self-reporting of intimate partner violence

Research has not conclusively determined whether men and women are equally likely to commit intimate partner violence (IPV). One explanation for the disparity in previous findings may be gender-based differences in reporting styles. The present study investigated whether there was any gender difference in self-reported IPV prevalence. A total of 3,740 Chinese couples from a representative population in Hong Kong were interviewed. Self-reports of men-to-women and women-to-men IPV between spouses were compared. Gender was controlled for to evaluate whether age, education, the Chinese concept of face, and other violence-related characteristics would affect the self-reporting of IPV. Findings supported gender symmetry in self-reported IPV prevalence as well as a moderate interspousal agreement in the self-reports. After adjustment for covariates, face was a significant factor predicting the interspousal differences in both men-to-women and women-to-men physical IPV.

Suicidal Ideation and the Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Rural Western China

This study examined the extent of the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and suicidal ideation in a rural county in Western China. A sample of 1,771 women participated in the study. The lifetime prevalence of physical assault, psychological aggression, and sexual coercion was 34%, 68%, and 4%, respectively. The preceding-year prevalence of physical assault and psychological aggression was 8% and 32%, respectively. The prevalence of lifetime suicidal ideation was 15.9%, and 3.3% of the women had suicidal ideation during the preceding week. Physical abuse victims were at more than four times greater risk of having suicidal ideation than those who had not suffered physical assault.

Children exposed to child maltreatment and intimate partner violence: a study of co-occurrence among Hong Kong Chinese families

OBJECTIVE

This study assessed the co-occurrence of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) and examined the association between them.

METHOD

The cross-sectional study recruited a population-based sample of 1,094 children aged 12-17 years in Hong Kong. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from the children. The prevalence of occurrence of child abuse and neglect by parents and exposure to IPV in both the past year and lifetime was examined, and their correlates were assessed using univariate and multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

The results show that 26% and 14.6% of child participants had been exposed to IPV physical assault, and 44.4% and 22.6% had been subjected to a parent's corporal punishment or to physical maltreatment from a parent in their lifetime and the year preceding the study, respectively. Among those families characterized by IPV, 54.4% and 46.5% were involved in child physical maltreatment over the child's lifetime and in the preceding year, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that children exposed to IPV were at higher risk of being victims of neglect, corporal punishment, and physical maltreatment or severe physical maltreatment by their parents than children who were not exposed to IPV, even when child and parent demographic factors were controlled for.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

The higher risk of child physical maltreatment associated with IPV highlights the need for an integrated assessment to screen for the presence of multiple forms of family violence within the family, and for intervention to assess effective responses to both IPV and child maltreatment by child protective service workers and domestic violence agencies.

Childhood sexual abuse associated with dating partner violence and suicidal ideation in a representative household sample in Hong Kong

This study investigated the prevalence and impact of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on future intimate partner violence (IPV) in dating relationship in Hong Kong, China. A total of 1,154 Chinese adult respondents engaged in dating relationships were interviewed face-to-face about their CSA histories, childhood witnessing of parental violence, adult sexual victimization (ASV) by others and IPV victimization with their current dating partner. Self-reports also measured levels of suicidal ideation, self-esteem, and demographic details. Overall, 1.7% reported some form of CSA with a higher percentage being women. No gender differences were found in the prevalence of either ASV or IPV. Results showed that CSA had an independent effect on physical IPV and suicidal ideation. The odds of IPV were increased by behavioral and psychological factors of victims such as alcohol and drug abuse, sex with partner, and low self-esteem. The odds of suicidal ideation were also increased by drug abuse, childhood witnessing of parental psychological aggression, and low self-esteem. Clinical implications of results included screening for CSA victims and suicidal victims when treating IPV patients, tailoring treatment according to individual IPV victim's problems, correcting behaviors that are associated with risks of IPV, such as engagement in casual sex and substance abuse, and focusing not only on tangible services but also on the social and psychological aspects that are placing the victims at risk for IPV.

Associating pregnancy with partner violence against Chinese women

The present study discusses if pregnancy is a risk factor for intimate partner violence using a large, representative sample containing detailed information on partner violence including physical and sexual abuse as well as perpetrator-related risk factors. Data from a representative sample of 2,225 men were analyzed. The self-reported prevalence of men's violence against their female partners was computed and compared in terms of demographic, behavioral, and relationship characteristics. The preceding-year prevalence of physical assault, sexual violence, and "any violence or injury" among the group whose partners were pregnant was 11.9%, 9.1%, and 18.8%, respectively. This is significantly higher than the nonpregnant group. Pregnancy was significantly associated with increased odds of violence, including physical assault, sexual violence, and "any violence or injury" (ORs = 2.42, 2.42, and 2.60, respectively). Having controlled for relationship characteristics including social desirability, social support, in-law conflict, dominance, and jealousy of male perpetrators, pregnancy was significantly associated with "any violence or injury." Demographic and behavioral variables accounted for pregnant women's significantly higher odds of having been abused in the year preceding the data collection. This study provides preliminary findings on the association between pregnancy and partner violence. Our findings underscore the need to screen for violence among pregnant women in clinical health care settings as well as in communities. Perpetrator-related risk factors should be included in the assessment of risk for partner violence against pregnant women. For the prevention of intimate partner violence, family-based intervention is needed to work with victims as well as perpetrators.

Co-occurrence of intimate partner violence and child abuse in Hong Kong Chinese families

This study examines the prevalence of co-occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) and child abuse and neglect (CAN) in a cohort of Chinese parents drawn from a large representative sample in Hong Kong. It also investigates the risk factors for CAN with a special emphasis on the role of IPV. A subsample of 2,363 parents was invited to complete the Conflict Tactics Scale and a demographic questionnaire examining the risk factors for CAN. Results show that among the perpetrators of child maltreatment, 37% and 36%, respectively, admitted they had been perpetrators and victims of IPV over their lifetime. Physical and psychological violence between spouses were the characteristics most significantly associated with child maltreatment. This suggests that intervention for CAN should include an assessment of IPV history. Integrative treatment for children suffering from CAN and interparental violence may be considered in intervention programs to combat CAN and IPV.

Association between childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual victimization in a representative sample in Hong Kong Chinese

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated the prevalence and impact of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) on adult sexual victimization (ASV) in Hong Kong, China. This study also examines correlates of demographic characteristics, depression, suicidal ideation, and self-esteem with ASV.

METHODS

A total of 5,049 Chinese adult respondents were interviewed face-to-face about their experiences of CSA, childhood witness of parental violence, ASV (by non-partner), and intimate partner violence (IPV). Self-reports also measured depression, suicidal ideation, self-esteem, and demographic details.

RESULTS

Of all respondents, 0.9% reported some form of CSA, with a higher percentage being women. CSA was found to pose a significant risk for preceding year IPV (sexual) after controlling for demographic factors. Gender, age, indebtedness, alcohol and drug abuse, depression, and low self-esteem significantly increased the odds of IPV (sexual), whereas suicidal ideation and being newly arrived from China increased the risk of ASV (by non-partner). Childhood witness of parental psychological aggression and physical violence were also associated with a higher risk of IPV (sexual).

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood sexual abuse may have an independent association with future sexual victimization in adulthood, but many covariates can also affect the impact of CSA and increase the risk of revictimization.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Intervention with ASV should include an assessment of CSA history and thus a screening for multiple victimization from IPV among victims. Prevention of revictimization for IPV victims with CSA histories may focus on making social and individual changes.

Sexual violence against women and children in Chinese societies

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the reported patterns of sexual violence against women and children in China. It reviews the prevalence of and risk factors for various types of sexual violence and discusses community knowledge and perceptions of these violent acts. It also critically examines three major problems of sexual violence research in China. First, the diversity of findings and study methods reported by surveys and criminal reports reflects the problems in obtaining accurate figures on the scope of the problem. Second, precautions must be taken in reading studies on Chinese culture-specific risk factors for domestic violence. Third, the study of culture-specific factors should not focus solely on cultural factors in a vacuum but rather, should examine traditional culture in the context of modern societies and consensus international standards of human rights. Recommendations for future research are also discussed.

Understanding violence against Chinese women in Hong Kong: an analysis of risk factors with a special emphasis on the role of in-law conflict

This study examines risk factors of intimate partner violence against women in a cohort of Chinese women drawn from a large representative sample in Hong Kong. Data from a cross-section of 1,870 women are analyzed. Prevalence rates of women's self-reports of violence by their intimate partners and conflict with in-laws are computed and compared in terms of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. The results show that in-law conflict was the characteristic most significantly associated with women's reports of violent victimization. This suggests that in-law conflict should be included in the screening and assessment of risk for intimate partner violence.

Personality characteristics of Chinese male batterers: an exploratory study of women's reports from a refuge sample of battered women in Hong Kong

This study examined the personality characteristics of Chinese male batterers in a cohort of 210 Chinese battered women drawn from a refuge in Hong Kong. Participants were interviewed using a standard questionnaire to examine the prevalence and incidence of violence they experienced. The incidence of battering in the preceding year was compared against the characteristics of male batterers using independent t tests. Logistic regression was preformed with the personality characteristics and battering. The results showed that a number of personality characteristics, in particular poor anger management and approval of the use of violence, were more frequent among batterers who were physically assaultive toward their partners. The findings of this study suggested the possibility of an association between child abuse and battering. The results have important implications for interventions with batterers in terms of the assessment and provision of batterer intervention programs.