Reinforcement magnitude: an evaluation of preference and reinforcer efficacy

Evolution of the substance use landscape: Implications for contingency management

Contingency management (CM), which involves the delivery of incentives upon meeting behavioral goals, has the potential to improve substance use treatment outcomes. The intervention allows for flexibility through numerous modifiable components including changes to incentive magnitude and schedule, target behavior, and intervention structure. Unfortunately, numerous changes in the substance use landscape have occurred in the past 10 to 15 years: Substances are more potent, overdose risk has increased, new substances and methods of use have been introduced, and substance classes are increasingly being intentionally and unintentionally mixed. These developments potentially undermine CM outcomes. We explored recent substance use changes due to legislative, regulatory, social, and economic factors for four substance classes: stimulants, opioids, tobacco, and cannabis. We discuss potential adjustments to the modifiable components of CM for future research in response to these changes. By continually adapting to the shifting substance use landscape, CM can maintain optimal efficacy.

Updated Recommendations for Reinforcement Schedule Thinning following Functional Communication Training

Schedule thinning is a necessary treatment procedure following the acquisition of a communication response during functional communication training. In this article, we update and extend the Hagopian et al. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 4, 4-16, (2011) review and recommendations on schedule-thinning procedures following functional communication training. Since their publication, substantial research has been published on the efficacy, efficiency, and social validity of schedule-thinning methods. We provide updated recommendations for schedule thinning based on contemporary literature that has been published since 2011, as well as discuss key areas for future research.

An assessment of token value and effectiveness: A replication

The purpose of the current study was to conduct a systematic replication of Fiske et al. (2015) to extend the behavior-analytic literature on token reinforcement. Specifically, the researchers addressed several of the limitations of Fiske et al. by including specific conditioning procedures, creating a controlled history of reinforcement with the token system, including participants with and without disabilities to extend the generality of the findings, and equating the magnitude of reinforcement across the primary and paired-token conditions. The current study evaluated the reinforcing value of tokens by using progressive-ratio schedules to compare the efficacy of primary reinforcement, paired tokens, and unpaired tokens. The results suggest that paired tokens may function as reinforcers, but they were not as consistently effective as primary reinforcers.

Single- vs. combined-category preference assessments for edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli

A concern when conducting combined-category preference assessments is the potential for displacement effects, a shift in the preference ranking from highly preferred to moderately or less preferred for stimuli in two of three stimulus categories (e.g., edible, leisure, or social-interaction). In this study, we evaluated potential displacement effects in combined-category arrays of edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli for five individuals with autism. First, single-category paired-stimulus preference assessments were implemented to identify two highly preferred stimuli from each category. When these stimuli were included in a combined-category preference assessment, displacement effects were observed for three of five participants. During a subsequent reinforcer assessment, stimuli identified as less preferred in the combined-category preference assessment functioned as reinforcers for two participants. Additionally, although social interaction was not identified as highly preferred for three of the five participants, it functioned as a reinforcer for four participants.

Social interaction can function as a reinforcer for dogs: Effects of stimulus duration and session parameters

Prior research has produced mixed results on whether human social interaction can function as a reinforcer for dog behavior. However, that research used either short durations of social interaction or rapid, repeated trials such that satiation could have been a factor. We investigated whether two durations of social interaction (30 s or 4 s petting plus vocal praise) would maintain more responding than extinction, than each other, or than food. We limited each session to 10 trials and temporally spaced sessions within and across days. Both durations of social interaction produced more responding than extinction, but there was no difference in responding between the two social interaction durations. When we compared responding in food sessions to 30-s and 4-s social interaction sessions, we could not determine differences in responses emitted per session for two dogs due to ceiling effects, but the third dog doubled her responding when food was provided. Additionally, latencies in food sessions for all dogs were significantly lower than expected from a random sampling of latencies. Our results suggest both durations of social interaction can function as a reinforcer, especially when delivered sporadically, but they are still not as effective as food as a reinforcer for most dogs.

Varying reinforcer dimensions during differential reinforcement without extinction: A translational model

Procedural arrangements of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction often involve presenting the same reinforcers for problem behavior and appropriate behavior, which is typically ineffective at reducing problem behavior and increasing an alternative response. However, manipulating reinforcement dimensions such that the contingencies favor the alternative response may improve treatment outcomes when using differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction by increasing appropriate behavior and reducing problem behavior. We conducted this translational study with 32 college students completing a button-pressing task on a computer program in which they could engage in analogs to problem behavior and appropriate behavior. The effects of manipulating magnitude, immediacy, quality, and a combination of all three dimensions for the alternative response were evaluated. Overall, all dimension manipulations reduced the analog to problem behavior, with the largest reductions observed during the quality probe and the probe with all dimensions combined. These results support the notion that differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction can be an effective form of treatment.

Increasing selection of and engagement in physical activity in children with autism spectrum disorder

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) engage in reduced levels of physical activity relative to neurotypical children. Researchers conducted 2 studies to 1) evaluate the influence of the number of physical activity options and effort on choice and 2) develop a token-based intervention to increase physical activity engagement and evaluate whether the opportunity to access the intervention supported responding similar to physical or sedentary activity alone. Four children with ASD participated. Additional physical activity options alone did not increase physical activity selection, but increased effort reduced selection of sedentary activity. Tokens increased physical activity for 2 participants. A combination of physical and sedentary activities maintained as much as or more responding than either activity in isolation for all participants. Limitations and potential areas of future research on choice and physical activity are discussed.

The mitigating effects of enhanced reinforcer magnitude and quality on treatment degradation

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior is a common intervention for problem behavior in persons with neurodevelopmental disorders, but it is susceptible to integrity errors that can degrade treatment effects. Manipulating reinforcement parameters to favor alternative behavior might make it more persistent in the face of integrity errors. We devised an analog of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior to examine if enhanced reinforcer magnitude or quality for the alternative response could protect against treatment degradation. Across 2 experiments, reinforcer magnitude or quality was manipulated to favor the alternative response in 1 condition but kept constant across both alternative and target responses in a second condition. Comparisons of the 2 conditions indicated that higher-magnitude or higher-quality reinforcement for alternative behavior can mitigate against treatment degradation when treatment errors occur and provided support for the utility of considering parameters of reinforcement when developing behavioral interventions for problem behavior.

The effects of large, small, and thinning magnitudes of alternative reinforcement on resurgence

Resurgence refers to an increase of a previously reinforced target behavior following the worsening of conditions for a more recently reinforced alternative behavior. There is evidence to suggest that alternative reinforcers of greater magnitude are more effective at reducing target responding but may also result in more resurgence when removed. Similar effects have been observed with high rates of alternative reinforcement. However, in clinical settings, reinforcement rate thinning is used to reduce the likelihood of resurgence associated with higher rates of alternative reinforcement. Given the clinical importance of alternative reinforcer magnitude, it is necessary to evaluate how reinforcer magnitude thinning may impact resurgence as well. Following Phase 1 in which target responding was reinforced, rats earned either large (six pellets), small (one pellet), or thinned (reduced from six pellets to one across sessions) magnitude reinforcement for alternative responding during target-response extinction in Phase 2. Then, alternative responding was placed on extinction for all groups in Phase 3. Target responding was comparably elevated at the end of Phase 2 for groups Small and Thin compared to group Large. In Phase 3, resurgence was evident only in group Large but target responding remained relatively elevated in groups Small and Thin. These results provide additional evidence of the important interplay between conditions of alternative reinforcement and the persistence and resurgence of target responding.

Evaluating the effects of social interaction on the results of preference assessments for leisure items

A variable that may influence the outcomes of stimulus preference assessments (SPAs) is whether social interaction is provided during the stimulus access period. In Experiment 1, we compared the outcomes of a Solitary paired stimulus preference assessment (PSPA) (toys only), Social PSPA (toys plus social interaction), and Combined PSPA (toys alone and toys plus social interaction) to determine whether the addition of social interaction influenced preference for toys in preschool children. In Experiment 2, we conducted a concurrent-operant reinforcer assessment to compare the reinforcing efficacy of stimuli with and without social interaction. Experiment 1 showed preference for toys was stable across assessments (Solitary and Social PSPAs) and most participants preferred toys plus social interaction when compared in a single assessment (Combined PSPA). Experiment 2 showed that results of the Combined PSPA in Experiment 1 predicted the outcome of most participants' reinforcer assessments.

Adapting Direct Services for Telehealth: A Practical Tutorial

Due to the pandemic brought on by the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), consumers of applied behavior-analytic interventions may be experiencing disrupted access to services. In response to the need for services, behavior analysts and therapists may find themselves treading unchartered waters as they use telehealth to provide direct intervention to consumers. Direct service provision via telehealth extends beyond the bounds of existing telehealth research, which primarily focuses on caregiver training and consultation. In the transition to telehealth, behavior analysts can consider how to adapt an existing evidence base of behavior-analytic strategies from a face-to-face format to intervention via a teleconferencing platform (i.e., Zoom). In this tutorial, we provide practice recommendations, task analyses, and a curated list of Zoom walk-throughs to help behavior analysts construct conceptually systematic learning opportunities in their direct telehealth services. Leveraging teleconferencing features to provide behavior-analytic intervention directly to consumers could spur future research to support these need-inspired practices and guide telehealth applications during and beyond the current pandemic.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-020-00529-5.

The Relevance of Operant Behavior in Conceptualizing the Psychological Well-Being of Captive Animals

The term "psychological well-being" is used in reference to husbandry with animals in human care settings such as research, agriculture, and zoos. This article seeks to clarify and conceptualize the term based upon two approaches that draw from several bodies of literature: the experimental analysis of behavior, experimental psychology, animal welfare and husbandry, farm animal behavior, zoo husbandry, and ethology. One approach focuses on the presence of problem behavior such as stereotypies, depressive-like behavior, and aggression, and emphasizes the conditions under which aberrant behavior in animals under human care occurs. The second approach examines what might be considered wellness by emphasizing opportunities to engage with its environment, or the absence of such opportunities, even if problematic behavior is not exhibited. Here, access to an interactive environment is relatively limited so opportunities for operant (voluntary) behavior could be considered. Designing for operant behavior provides opportunities for variability in both behavior and outcomes. Operant behavior also provides control over the environment, a characteristic that has been a core assumption of well-being. The importance of interactions with one's environment is especially evident in observations that animals prefer opportunities to work for items necessary for sustenance, such as food, over having them delivered freely. These considerations raise the importance of operant behavior to psychological well-being, especially as benefits to animals under human care.

Effects of reward magnitude frames on measures of delay discounting in a hypothetical money scenario

The current study analyzed the effects of three frames of reward magnitude-quantity, volume, and duration-on the rate at which college students discounted hypothetical, delayed monetary rewards. Hypothetical scenarios were presented using the fill-in-the-blank discounting questionnaire and participants made choices between immediate and delayed hypothetical monetary rewards. Scenarios framed the monetary choices as (a) quantity of dollar bills, (b) height (inches) of a stack of dollar bills, and (c) duration of time spent in a hypothetical cash machine to collect dollar bills. For each scenario, participants' subjective values were used to calculate the area under the curve (AuC). Framing resulted in a moderate effect size: The duration frame yielded significantly smaller AuC values compared to the quantity and volume frames. Thus, the framing of reward magnitude was a significant variable in controlling discounting rates for hypothetical, delayed monetary rewards. Subsequent investigations should be aware of the independent effects of the reward magnitude frames on delay discounting rates.

An Evaluation of Operant Behavioural Economics in Functional Communication Training for Severe Problem Behaviour

Objective: This single-case experiment examined the use of behavioural economic concepts in a function-based treatment for problem behaviour. Methods: Behavioural economic analyses were used to evaluate the strength of functions of problem behaviour and this information was used to inform elements of function-based treatment for one child with a neurodevelopmental disorder. Results: Findings from this experiment indicated that the incorporation of behavioural economic measures resulted in positive treatment effects that were maintained throughout all phases of the evaluation, including those implemented by caregivers. Conclusions: These results suggest that behavioural economic concepts and procedures can be successful adjuncts to evidence-based assessments and treatments for problem behaviour.

Children with Autism show Atypical Preference for Non-social Stimuli

The present investigation describes three studies testing the hypothesis that children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) show an atypical preference for non-social stimuli. Preference for non-social and social stimuli was assessed using applications on a portable tablet computer. Twenty-eight children with ASD were matched on developmental age with the chronological age of 41 typically developing (TD) children. The non-social stimuli consisted of six different films of abstract moving geometric patterns. Social stimuli were six different films of the face of young adults (Study 1 and 3) or six films of different dogs' faces (Study 2). When given a choice between the non-social and social stimuli, children with ASD preferred the non-social stimuli. When the human faces were replaced with dogs' faces the participants with ASD continued to prefer the non-social stimuli. A high reinforcement value of non-social stimuli was also demonstrated when the non-social stimuli were presented alone, suggesting the preference for the non-social stimuli was not simply an avoidance of social stimuli. Whenever an infant prefers non-social stimuli over social stimuli, non-typical development in social communication and social interests may result, together with the development of high levels and frequently occurring stereotyped and repetitive behavior. These behaviors define Autism.

An Evaluation of the Effects of Varying Magnitudes of Reinforcement on Variable Responding Exhibited by Individuals With Autism

Interventions aimed at increasing communicative response variability hold particular importance for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Several procedures have been demonstrated in the applied and translational literature to increase response variability. However, little is known about the relationship between reinforcer magnitude and response variability. In the basic literature, Doughty, Giorno, and Miller evaluated the effects of reinforcer magnitude on behavioral variability by manipulating reinforcer magnitude across alternating relative frequency threshold contingencies, with results suggesting that larger reinforcers induced repetitive responding. The purpose of this study was to translate Doughty et al.'s findings to evaluate the relative effects of different magnitudes of reinforcement on communicative response variability in children with ASD. A Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement was in place during each condition within an alternating treatments design. Magnitudes of reinforcement contingent on variable communicative responding were manipulated across the two conditions. Inconsistent with basic findings, the results showed higher levels of variable communicative responding associated with the larger magnitude of reinforcement. These outcomes may have potential implications for interventions aimed at increasing response variability in individuals with ASD, as well as future research in this area.

Assessing factors that influence young children's food preferences and choices

Researchers have identified an unbalanced diet as a key risk factor in the etiology of many chronic diseases (World Health Organization, ). Although researchers have found that numerous factors influence children's food choices, no assessment exists to identify these factors. In Experiment 1, we established preliminary empirical evidence of children's preferences for healthier and less-healthy foods, and found that 16 of 21 children preferred less-healthy foods to healthier foods. In Experiment 2, we established the utility of an analogue, competing parameters assessment designed to approximate children's food choices in the natural environment. We identified either quality or immediacy as the most influential parameters governing four of four childrens' food choices. We found that effort influenced the efficacy of these reinforcer parameters in a predictable manner for one of four children.

Reinforcement Learning in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Early behavioral interventions are recognized as integral to standard care in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and often focus on reinforcing desired behaviors (e.g., eye contact) and reducing the presence of atypical behaviors (e.g., echoing others' phrases). However, efficacy of these programs is mixed. Reinforcement learning relies on neurocircuitry that has been reported to be atypical in ASD: prefrontal-sub-cortical circuits, amygdala, brainstem, and cerebellum. Thus, early behavioral interventions rely on neurocircuitry that may function atypically in at least a subset of individuals with ASD. Recent work has investigated physiological, behavioral, and neural responses to reinforcers to uncover differences in motivation and learning in ASD. We will synthesize this work to identify promising avenues for future research that ultimately can be used to enhance the efficacy of early intervention.

Resurgence and alternative-reinforcer magnitude

Resurgence is defined as an increase in the frequency of a previously reinforced target response when an alternative source of reinforcement is suspended. Despite an extensive body of research examining factors that affect resurgence, the effects of alternative-reinforcer magnitude have not been examined. Thus, the present experiments aimed to fill this gap in the literature. In Experiment 1, rats pressed levers for single-pellet reinforcers during Phase 1. In Phase 2, target-lever pressing was extinguished, and alternative-lever pressing produced either five-pellet, one-pellet, or no alternative reinforcement. In Phase 3, alternative reinforcement was suspended to test for resurgence. Five-pellet alternative reinforcement produced faster elimination and greater resurgence of target-lever pressing than one-pellet alternative reinforcement. In Experiment 2, effects of decreasing alternative-reinforcer magnitude on resurgence were examined. Rats pressed levers and pulled chains for six-pellet reinforcers during Phases 1 and 2, respectively. In Phase 3, alternative reinforcement was decreased to three pellets for one group, one pellet for a second group, and suspended altogether for a third group. Shifting from six-pellet to one-pellet alternative reinforcement produced as much resurgence as suspending alternative reinforcement altogether, while shifting from six pellets to three pellets did not produce resurgence. These results suggest that alternative-reinforcer magnitude has effects on elimination and resurgence of target behavior that are similar to those of alternative-reinforcer rate. Thus, both suppression of target behavior during alternative reinforcement and resurgence when conditions of alternative reinforcement are altered may be related to variables that affect the value of the alternative-reinforcement source.

The effects of reinforcement magnitude on skill acquisition for children with autism

We examined the effects of reinforcement magnitude on skill acquisition during discrete-trial training. After conducting a magnitude preference assessment, we compared acquisition during conditions with large and small magnitudes of edible reinforcement to a praise-only condition. Although all participants showed a preference for the large-magnitude reinforcer, preference did not predict the magnitude that produced the fastest skill acquisition.

Translational Assessment of Reward and Motivational Deficits in Psychiatric Disorders

Deficits in reward and motivation are common symptoms characterizing several psychiatric and neurological disorders. Such deficits may include anhedonia, defined as loss of pleasure, as well as impairments in anticipatory pleasure, reward valuation, motivation/effort, and reward learning. This chapter describes recent advances in the development of behavioral tasks used to assess different aspects of reward processing in both humans and non-human animals. While earlier tasks were generally developed independently with limited cross-species correspondence, a newer generation of translational tasks has emerged that are theoretically and procedurally analogous across species and allow parallel testing, data analyses, and interpretation between human and rodent behaviors. Such enhanced conformity between cross-species tasks will facilitate investigation of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying discrete reward and motivated behaviors and is expected to improve our understanding and treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by reward and motivation deficits.

Correspondence between single versus daily preference assessment outcomes and reinforcer efficacy under progressive-ratio schedules

Research has suggested that a daily multiple-stimulus-without-replacement (MSWO) preference assessment may be more sensitive to changes in preference than other assessment formats, thereby resulting in greater correspondence with reinforcer efficacy over time (DeLeon et al., 2001). However, most prior studies have measured reinforcer efficacy using rate of responding under single-operant arrangements and dense schedules or under concurrent-operants arrangements. An alternative measure of reinforcer efficacy involves the evaluation of responding under progressive-ratio (PR) schedules. In the present study, 7 participants were given a single paired-stimulus (PS) preference assessment followed by daily MSWO preference assessments. After each daily MSWO, participants responded for each stimulus on a PR schedule. The correspondence between break points and preferences, as assessed by the 2 assessment formats, was examined. Results demonstrated that both preference assessments did equally well at predicting reinforcer efficacy, although the PS more consistently identified the most effective reinforcer.

Assessing motivation in children using a progressive ratio task

The association of age and sex on the performance of a progressive ratio task was studied in 847 children, ages 4-14 years. Variations of this task have been used extensively with animals and to a lesser extent with humans to study factors that affect aspects of motivation. The participants in this study were required to press a response lever for nickel reinforcers during a 10 min period. One response was required to earn the first nickel and each subsequent nickel required an additional 10 more responses. Older children had a significantly higher breakpoint than younger children. This appeared to be mostly the result of older children having significantly shorter inter-response times than younger children. In addition, boys had significantly higher breakpoints than girls, especially at older ages. The results of this study illustrate that both age and sex influence the performance of this task and thus suggest that age and sex influence aspects of motivation in children. Further, characterization of performance of this task by humans facilitates comparisons with animal models and, thus, enhances its translational utility.