Pathways to early violent death: the voices of serious violent youth offenders

Shook Ones: Understanding the Intersection of Nonfatal Violent Firearm Injury, Incarceration, and Traumatic Stress Among Young Black Men

Violent injury is a leading cause of death and disability among young Black men, with the highest rates occurring in low-income urban populations. Hospital-based violence intervention programs (HVIPs) offer a promising opportunity to address the biopsychosocial factors that adversely affect this population. However, there are major gaps between the needs of young Black male survivors of violent injury and the forms of care provided by HVIPs. Patient-centered outcomes research provides a useful mode of inquiry to develop strategies to decrease these differences. Care for survivors, including treatment for traumatic stress disorders, must be reconceptualized to center the lived experiences of young Black men. This paper qualitatively explores how these survivors of gun violence express symptoms of traumatic stress and the ways in which their narratives can inform the implementation of the biopsychosocial model in HVIPs. A phenomenological variant ecological systems theory framework was used to analyze participant narratives to aid in understanding their symptoms of traumatic stress and post-injury affective changes as both psychologically and socially important experiences. Such insight may inform changes to HVIP practice to address persistent health disparities related to violence.

The Association Between Adolescent Gun Ownership and Gun Carrying and Adulthood Violence and Victimization

Although many studies have highlighted the deleterious outcomes associated with access to firearms, others suggest gun ownership and carrying can have protective effects. This study attempts to adjudicate between these countervailing points and address several important gaps in the literature. To do so, data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were used to assess the long-term associations between gun ownership and gun carrying in late adolescence and violence and violent victimization in early adulthood. Results from propensity score matching analyses suggest gun carrying, but not gun ownership, is associated with a higher risk of experiencing a violent victimization (b = 0.080, 95% CI = .032, .127) and engaging in violence with a weapon (b = 0.885, 95% CI = .392, 1.378). Efforts to curb firearm-related violence should consider focusing on those who carry guns for additional counseling about these risks.

Who Is at Risk of Dying Young from Suicide and Sudden Violent Death? Common and Specific Risk Factors among Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults

OBJECTIVE

Suicides and other sudden violent deaths are the most common causes of death among young people worldwide. This case-control study compared risk factors for suicide and other sudden violent death among young people.

METHOD

A total of 436 psychological autopsy interviews with next of kin were performed. The samples aged 10-25 years included 63 cases of suicide, 62 cases of other sudden violent death, and 104 matched living controls. Two stepwise multiple logistic regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

The number of recent stressful life events was the only common risk factor for suicide and other sudden violent death. Specific risk factors for suicide were any form of addiction and being an inpatient in adult psychiatric care. Specific risk factors for other sudden violent death were lower elementary school results, lower educational level, and abuse of psychoactive drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

The suicide group seems to have been more vulnerable and exposed to different kinds of stressors, whereas the sudden violent death group seems to have been more acting out and risk-taking. Both groups must be the subject of prevention and intervention programs.

Perceptions of Violent Encounters between Police and Young Black Men across Stakeholder Groups

Violence between police and young black men is a longstanding issue that has gained national attention in recent years due to high-profile violent encounters. We conducted 48 semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders from different groups (young black men aged 14-24 years, parents, educators, police officers, and staff in youth serving organizations). Stakeholders were asked to (1) identify causes of violent encounters between police and young black men; (2) describe police officers who serve in their communities; and (3) describe interactions between police and young black men. Data were collected and analyzed using thematic analysis and content analysis methods. All stakeholder groups except police felt that violent encounters between police and young black men were caused by officers lacking a connection with communities. Fear and distrust across stakeholder groups was also seen as a cause of violent encounters; youth feared police after having seen or heard of violent encounters, while officers feared youth due to the availability of firearms and previous assaults on officers. Several stakeholder groups recognized that racism and prejudice among police was another cause of violence between police and young black men. Positive interactions between police and youth were seen as the result of established, trusting relationships developed over time. Future efforts to prevent violent encounters between police and young black men should engage multiple stakeholder groups. One avenue for engagement is through community mobilization efforts that foster collaboration, build community trust, and encourage implementation of policies, programs, and practices that prevent future violent encounters.

Preventing Violent Encounters Between Police and Young Black Men: A Comparative Case Study

INTRODUCTION

In the past several years, high profile events have drawn attention to the longstanding problem of violent encounters between police and young black men in the U.S. This paper highlights the results of a 1-year qualitative study to describe (1) perceptions of police-youth violence prevention policies, programs, and practices; and (2) existing infrastructures that can be leveraged to strengthen police-youth violence prevention efforts.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 48 key stakeholders from four groups (young black men aged 14-24years, parents and educators, police officers, and staff in youth serving organizations) in 2017. Stakeholders were asked to (1) identify any policies, programs, or practices aimed at police-youth violence prevention; (2) evaluate the effectiveness of these efforts and how they might be improved; and (3) envision any new efforts to prevent future violent encounters between police and young black men. Data were collected and analyzed in 2017 using content analysis methods.

RESULTS

Key stakeholders demonstrated high awareness of efforts, particularly programs to deter youth violence. However, none of them were able to identify specific efforts to reduce violent encounters between local police and young black men. Responses differed across key stakeholder groups. Young people often stated that police needed to become more involved in the communities they serve; however, police believed they were building relationships with the community.

CONCLUSIONS

Future violence prevention efforts must incorporate policies, programs, and practices that explicitly address violent encounters between police and young black men.

SUPPLEMENT INFORMATION

This article is part of a supplement entitled African American Men's Health: Research, Practice, and Policy Implications, which is sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and interpersonal process in homeless veterans participating in a peer mentoring intervention: Associations with program benefit

Homelessness among veterans has dropped dramatically since the expansion of services for homeless veterans in 2009, and now engaging homeless veterans in existing programs will be important to continuing to make progress. While one promising approach for engaging homeless veterans in care is involving peer mentors in integrated services, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may diminish the effects of peer mentorship. This mixed methods study examined how interpersonal and emotional processes in homeless veterans with and without PTSD impacted their capacity to engage in relationships with peer mentors. Four focus groups of 5-8 homeless male veterans (N = 22) were drawn from a larger multisite randomized trial. Qualitative analysis identified five primary themes: disconnectedness; anger, hostility, or resentment; connecting with others; positive view of self; and feeling like an outsider. Thematic comparisons between participants with and without a self-reported PTSD diagnosis, and between those who did and did not benefit from the peer mentor program, were validated by using quantitative methods. Disconnectedness was associated with self-reported PTSD diagnosis and with lack of program benefit; feeling like an outsider was associated with program benefit. Results suggest that disruption to the capacity to develop and maintain social bonds in PTSD may interfere with the capacity to benefit from peer mentorship. Social rules and basic strategies for navigating interpersonal relationships may differ somewhat within the homeless community and outside of it; for veterans who feel disconnected from the domiciled community, a formerly homeless veteran peer may serve as a critical "bridge" between the two social worlds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Relationships Among Exposure to Violence, Psychological Distress, and Gun Carrying Among Male Adolescents Found Guilty of Serious Legal Offenses: A Longitudinal Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Gun violence and psychological problems are often conflated in public discourse on gun safety. However, few studies have empirically assessed the effect of exposure to violence when exploring the association between gun carrying and psychological distress.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the potential effect of exposure to violence on the associations between gun carrying and psychological distress among vulnerable adolescents.

DESIGN

Longitudinal cohort study.

SETTING

The Pathways to Desistance study, a study of youths found guilty of a serious criminal offense in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, or Maricopa County, Arizona.

PARTICIPANTS

1170 male youths aged 14 to 19 years who had been found guilty of a serious criminal offense.

MEASUREMENTS

Youths were assessed at baseline and at four 6-month intervals with regard to gun carrying ("Have you carried a gun?"), psychological distress (Global Severity Index), and exposure to violence (modified version of the Exposure to Violence Inventory).

RESULTS

At the bivariate level, gun carrying was consistently associated with higher levels of psychological distress. However, the association between psychological distress and gun carrying diminished or disappeared when exposure to violence was considered. Exposure to violence (as either a victim or a witness) was significantly related to gun carrying at all follow-up assessments, with increased odds of gun carrying ranging from 1.43 to 1.87 with each additional report of exposure to violence.

LIMITATIONS

The study sample was limited to justice-involved male youths. Precarrying distress and exposure to violence could not be fully captured because many participants had initiated gun carrying before baseline.

CONCLUSION

In male youths involved in the criminal justice system, the relationship between psychological distress and gun carrying seems to be influenced by exposure to violence (either experiencing or witnessing it). Further study is warranted to explore whether interventions after exposure to violence could reduce gun carrying in this population.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

None.

The Relationships Among Exposure to Violence, Psychological Distress, and Gun Carrying Among Male Adolescents Found Guilty of Serious Legal Offenses: A Longitudinal Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Gun violence and psychological problems are often conflated in public discourse on gun safety. However, few studies have empirically assessed the effect of exposure to violence when exploring the association between gun carrying and psychological distress.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the potential effect of exposure to violence on the associations between gun carrying and psychological distress among vulnerable adolescents.

DESIGN

Longitudinal cohort study.

SETTING

The Pathways to Desistance study, a study of youths found guilty of a serious criminal offense in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, or Maricopa County, Arizona.

PARTICIPANTS

1170 male youths aged 14 to 19 years who had been found guilty of a serious criminal offense.

MEASUREMENTS

Youths were assessed at baseline and at four 6-month intervals with regard to gun carrying ("Have you carried a gun?"), psychological distress (Global Severity Index), and exposure to violence (modified version of the Exposure to Violence Inventory).

RESULTS

At the bivariate level, gun carrying was consistently associated with higher levels of psychological distress. However, the association between psychological distress and gun carrying diminished or disappeared when exposure to violence was considered. Exposure to violence (as either a victim or a witness) was significantly related to gun carrying at all follow-up assessments, with increased odds of gun carrying ranging from 1.43 to 1.87 with each additional report of exposure to violence.

LIMITATIONS

The study sample was limited to justice-involved male youths. Precarrying distress and exposure to violence could not be fully captured because many participants had initiated gun carrying before baseline.

CONCLUSION

In male youths involved in the criminal justice system, the relationship between psychological distress and gun carrying seems to be influenced by exposure to violence (either experiencing or witnessing it). Further study is warranted to explore whether interventions after exposure to violence could reduce gun carrying in this population.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

None.

Effect of Gun Carrying on Perceptions of Risk Among Adolescent Offenders

OBJECTIVES

We observed how perceptions of risks, costs, crime rewards, and violence exposure change as individual gun-carrying behavior changes among high-risk adolescents.

METHODS

We analyzed a longitudinal study (2000-2010) of serious juvenile offenders in Maricopa County, Arizona, or Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, assessing within-person changes in risk and reward perceptions, and violence exposure as individuals initiated or ceased gun carrying.

RESULTS

Despite being associated with heightened exposure to violence, gun carrying was linked to lower perceptions of risks and costs and higher perceived rewards of offending. Gun carrying was not time-stable, as certain individuals both started and stopped carrying during the study. Within-person changes in carrying guns were associated with shifting perceptions of risks, costs, and rewards of crime, and changes in exposure to violence in expected directions.

CONCLUSIONS

Gun carrying reduces perceptions of risks associated with offending while increasing actual risk of violence exposure. This suggests that there is an important disconnect between perceptions and objective levels of safety among high-risk youths. Gun-carrying decisions may not only be influenced by factors of protection and self-defense, but also by perceptions of risks and reward associated with engaging in crime more generally.

Violent Death Rates and Risk for Released Prisoners in North Carolina

Released prisoners face high risk of early mortality. The risk of violent death, specifically homicide and suicide, are addressed in this study. Data on inmates released from the North Carolina Division of Adult Corrections (N = 476) matched to the Violent Death Reporting System are analyzed to estimate rates and demographic and criminal justice-related predictors. Violent death rates for persons released from prison were more than 7 times higher than for the general adult population. Results from multinomial logistic regression indicate decreased homicide risk for every year of age, whereas male gender and minority race increased risk. For suicide, minority race, release without supervision, and substance abuse treatment in prison decreased fatality risk. By contrast, a history of mental illness increased suicide risk. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Loss Due to Death and its Association with Mental Disorders in Juvenile Detainees

This study investigated the prevalence of loss due to death and its association with mental disorders in a random sample of 898 newly detained adolescents in Chicago, Illinois. Nearly 90% of youth experienced the loss of an important person; most had also experienced a "high-risk" loss (e.g., loss due to violence, sudden loss). Minority youth were at particular risk. Youth with any loss or multiple losses were more likely to have mood disorders and ADHD/behavioral disorders, respectively, than youth who had no such losses. Interventions focusing on modifiable protective factors following loss may increase positive outcomes in this vulnerable population.