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Gao J, Ali MY, Kamaraj Y, Zhang Z, Weike L, Sethupathy S, Zhu D. A comprehensive review on biological funnel mechanism in lignin valorization: Pathways and enzyme dynamics. Microbiol Res 2024; 287:127835. [PMID: 39032264 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2024.127835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Lignin, a significant byproduct of the paper and pulp industry, is attracting interest due to its potential utilization in biomaterial-based sectors and biofuel production. Investigating biological methods for converting lignin into valuable products is crucial for effective utilization and has recently gained growing attention. Several microorganisms effectively decomposed low molecular weight lignins, transforming them into intermediate compounds via upper and lower metabolic pathways. This review focuses on assessing bacterial metabolic pathways involved in the breakdown of lignin into aromatic compounds and their subsequent utilization by different bacteria through various metabolic pathways. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing efficient synthetic metabolic systems to valorize lignin and obtain valuable industrial aromatic chemicals. The concept of "biological funneling," which involves examining key enzymes, their interactions, and the complex metabolic pathways associated with lignin conversion, is crucial in lignin valorization. By manipulating lignin metabolic pathways and utilizing biological routes, many aromatic compounds can be synthesized within cellular factories. Although there is insufficient evidence regarding the complete metabolism of polyaromatic hydrocarbons by particular microorganisms, understanding lignin-degrading enzymes, regulatory mechanisms, and interactions among various enzyme systems is essential for optimizing lignin valorization. This review highlights recent advancements in lignin valorization, bio-funneling, multi-omics, and analytical characterization approaches for aromatic utilization. It provides up-to-date information and insights into the latest research findings and technological innovations. The review offers valuable insights into the future potential of biological routes for lignin valorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayue Gao
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Mohamed Yassin Ali
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Fayoum University, Fayoum 63514, Egypt
| | - Yoganathan Kamaraj
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Zhenghao Zhang
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Li Weike
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Sivasamy Sethupathy
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Daochen Zhu
- Biofuels Institute, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.
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Zhang K, Li J, Wang Z, Xie B, Xiong Z, Li H, Ahmed M, Fang F, Li J, Li X. Cloning, expression and application of a novel laccase derived from water buffalo ruminal lignin-degrading bacteria. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 266:131109. [PMID: 38531520 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Water buffalo is the only mammal found to degrade lignin so far, and laccase plays an indispensable role in the degradation of lignin. In this study, multiple laccase genes were amplified based on the water buffalo rumen derived lignin-degrading bacteria Bacillus cereus and Ochrobactrum pseudintermedium. Subsequently, the corresponding recombinant plasmids were transformed into E. coli expression system BL21 (DE3) for induced expression by Isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). After preliminary screening, protein purification and enzyme activity assays, Lac3833 with soluble expression and high enzyme activity was selected to test its characteristics, especially the ability of lignin degradation. The results showed that the optimum reaction temperature of Lac3833 was 40 °C for different substrates. The relative activity of Lac3833 reached the highest at pH 4.5 and pH 5.5 when the substrates were ABTS or 2,6-DMP and guaiacol, respectively. Additionally, Lac3833 could maintain high enzyme activity in different temperatures, pH and solutions containing Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and Mn2+. Importantly, compared to negative treatment, recombinant laccase Lac3833 treatment showed that it had a significant function in degrading lignin. In conclusion, this is a pioneering study to produce recombinant laccase with lignin-degrading ability by bacteria from water buffalo rumen, which will provide new insights for the exploitation of more lignin-degrading enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jingfa Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Bohan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zixiang Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Hongyi Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Mehboob Ahmed
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Fang Fang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jiakui Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Xiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Shennongjia Science and Technology Innovation Center, Huazhong Agricultural University, Shennongjia, China.
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Kumagawa E, Katsumata M, Nishimura H, Watanabe T, Ishii S, Ohta Y. The etherase system of Novosphingobium sp. MBES04 functions as a sensor of lignin fragments through phenylpropanone production to induce specific transcriptional responses. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2024; 16:e13210. [PMID: 37950419 PMCID: PMC10866074 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.13210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
The MBES04 strain of Novosphingobium accumulates phenylpropanone monomers as end-products of the etherase system, which specifically and reductively cleaves the β-O-4 ether bond (a major bond in lignin molecules). However, it does not utilise phenylpropanone monomers as an energy source. Here, we studied the response to the lignin-related perturbation to clarify the physiological significance of its etherase system. Transcriptome analysis revealed two gene clusters, each consisting of four tandemly linked genes, specifically induced by a lignin preparation extracted from hardwood (Eucalyptus globulus) and a β-O-4-type lignin model biaryl compound, but not by vanillin. The most strongly induced gene was a 2,4'-dihydroxyacetophenone dioxygenase-like protein, which leads to energy production through oxidative degradation. The other cluster was related to multidrug resistance. The former cluster was transcriptionally regulated by a common promoter, where a phenylpropanone monomer acted as one of the effectors responsible for gene induction. These results indicate that the physiological significance of the etherase system of the strain lies in its function as a sensor for lignin fragments. This may be a survival strategy to detect nutrients and gain tolerance to recalcitrant toxic compounds, while the strain preferentially utilises easily degradable aromatic compounds with lower energy demands for catabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Kumagawa
- Gunma University Center for Food Science and Wellness, Gunma UniversityMaebashiGunmaJapan
| | - Madoka Katsumata
- Gunma University Center for Food Science and Wellness, Gunma UniversityMaebashiGunmaJapan
| | - Hiroshi Nishimura
- Research Institute for Sustainable HumanosphereKyoto UniversityUjiKyotoJapan
| | - Takashi Watanabe
- Research Institute for Sustainable HumanosphereKyoto UniversityUjiKyotoJapan
| | - Shun'ichi Ishii
- Institute for Extra‐cutting‐edge Science and Technology Avant‐garde Research (X‐star)Japan Agency for Marine‐Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)YokosukaKanagawaJapan
| | - Yukari Ohta
- Gunma University Center for Food Science and Wellness, Gunma UniversityMaebashiGunmaJapan
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Zhang H, Wang Z, Yu X, Cao J, Bao T, Liu J, Sun C, Wang J, Fang J. The Phylogeny and Metabolic Potentials of a Lignocellulosic Material-Degrading Aliiglaciecola Bacterium Isolated from Intertidal Seawater in East China Sea. Microorganisms 2024; 12:144. [PMID: 38257972 PMCID: PMC10821302 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulosic materials are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin and are one of the most abundant biopolymers in marine environments. The extent of the involvement of marine microorganisms in lignin degradation and their contribution to the oceanic carbon cycle remains elusive. In this study, a novel lignin-degrading bacterial strain, LCG003, was isolated from intertidal seawater in Lu Chao Harbor, East China Sea. Phylogenetically, strain LCG003 was affiliated with the genus Aliiglaciecola within the family Alteromonadaceae. Metabolically, strain LCG003 contains various extracellular (signal-fused) glycoside hydrolase genes and carbohydrate transporter genes and can grow with various carbohydrates as the sole carbon source, including glucose, fructose, sucrose, rhamnose, maltose, stachyose and cellulose. Moreover, strain LCG003 contains many genes of amino acid and oligopeptide transporters and extracellular peptidases and can grow with peptone as the sole carbon and nitrogen source, indicating a proteolytic lifestyle. Notably, strain LCG003 contains a gene of dyp-type peroxidase and strain-specific genes involved in the degradation of 4-hydroxy-benzoate and vanillate. We further confirmed that it can decolorize aniline blue and grow with lignin as the sole carbon source. Our results indicate that the Aliiglaciecola species can depolymerize and mineralize lignocellulosic materials and potentially play an important role in the marine carbon cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongcai Zhang
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Zekai Wang
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Xi Yu
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Junwei Cao
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Tianqiang Bao
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Jie Liu
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Chengwen Sun
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Jiahua Wang
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
| | - Jiasong Fang
- Shanghai Engineering Center of Hadal Science and Technology, College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (H.Z.); (Z.W.); (X.Y.); (J.C.); (T.B.); (J.L.); (C.S.)
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
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Gu J, Qiu Q, Yu Y, Sun X, Tian K, Chang M, Wang Y, Zhang F, Huo H. Bacterial transformation of lignin: key enzymes and high-value products. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS AND BIOPRODUCTS 2024; 17:2. [PMID: 38172947 PMCID: PMC10765951 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02447-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Lignin, a natural organic polymer that is recyclable and inexpensive, serves as one of the most abundant green resources in nature. With the increasing consumption of fossil fuels and the deterioration of the environment, the development and utilization of renewable resources have attracted considerable attention. Therefore, the effective and comprehensive utilization of lignin has become an important global research topic, with the goal of environmental protection and economic development. This review focused on the bacteria and enzymes that can bio-transform lignin, focusing on the main ways that lignin can be utilized to produce high-value chemical products. Bacillus has demonstrated the most prominent effect on lignin degradation, with 89% lignin degradation by Bacillus cereus. Furthermore, several bacterial enzymes were discussed that can act on lignin, with the main enzymes consisting of dye-decolorizing peroxidases and laccase. Finally, low-molecular-weight lignin compounds were converted into value-added products through specific reaction pathways. These bacteria and enzymes may become potential candidates for efficient lignin degradation in the future, providing a method for lignin high-value conversion. In addition, the bacterial metabolic pathways convert lignin-derived aromatics into intermediates through the "biological funnel", achieving the biosynthesis of value-added products. The utilization of this "biological funnel" of aromatic compounds may address the heterogeneous issue of the aromatic products obtained via lignin depolymerization. This may also simplify the separation of downstream target products and provide avenues for the commercial application of lignin conversion into high-value products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Gu
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Qing Qiu
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Yue Yu
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Xuejian Sun
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Kejian Tian
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Menghan Chang
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Yibing Wang
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Fenglin Zhang
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Hongliang Huo
- School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Avenue, Changchun, 130117, China.
- Engineering Lab for Water Pollution Control and Resources Recovery of Jilin Province, Changchun, 130117, China.
- Engineering Research Center of Low-Carbon Treatment and Green Development of Polluted Water in Northeast China, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130117, China.
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Rasool T, Ansar M, Ali I, Ali MI, Jamal A, Badshah M, Huang Z, Urynowicz M. Performance evaluation of gravity-driven bioreactor (GDB) for simultaneous treatment of black liquor and domestic wastewater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:7043-7057. [PMID: 38157168 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31576-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
A lab-scale gravity-driven bioreactor (GDB) was designed and constructed to evaluate the simultaneous treatment of black liquor and domestic wastewater. The GDB was operated with a mixture of black liquor and domestic wastewater at a ratio of 1:1 and maintained at an average organic loading rate of 1235 mg-COD/L-Day. The wastewater was fed to the primary sedimentation tank at a flow rate of approximately 12 mL/min and subsequently passed through serially connected anaerobic and aerobic chambers with the same flow rate. Each wastewater sample was allowed to undergo a hydraulic retention time of approximately 72 h, ensuring effective treatment. The GDB was actively operated for nine samples (W1-W9) at a weekly frequency. The entire process was conducted within the workstation's ambient temperature range of 30-35 °C to sustain microbial activity and treatment efficiency in an open environment. The performance of the GDB was evaluated in terms of various pollution indicators, including COD, BOD5, lignin removal, TDS, TSS, EC, PO43-, SO42-, microbial load (CFU/mL and MPN index), total nitrogen, and color reduction. The results showed that the GDB achieved promising treatment efficiencies: 84.5% for COD, 71.80% for BOD5, 82.8% for TDS, 100% for TSS, 74.71% for E.C., 67.25% for PO43-, 81% for SO42-, and 69.36% for TN. Additionally, about 80% reduction in lignin content and 57% color reduction were observed after the treatment. The GDB substantially reduced microbial load in CFU/mL (77.98%) and MPN (90%). This study marks the first to report on wastewater treatment from two different sources (black liquor and domestic wastewater) using a simple GDB design. Furthermore, it highlights the GDB's potential as a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and efficient solution for wastewater treatment, with no need for supplementary chemical or physical agents and zero operational costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabassum Rasool
- Department of Microbiology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ansar
- Department of Microbiology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Irfan Ali
- Centre of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ishtiaq Ali
- Department of Microbiology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Asif Jamal
- Department of Microbiology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan.
| | - Malik Badshah
- Department of Microbiology, Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan
| | - Zaixing Huang
- Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Wyoming University, Laramie, WY, 82071, USA
| | - Michael Urynowicz
- Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Wyoming University, Laramie, WY, 82071, USA
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Rasool T, Ishtiaq Ali M, Asif Jamal, Huang Z, Urynowicz M. Performance evaluation and microbial profiling of integrated vertical flow constructed wetland (IVFCW) for simultaneous treatment of domestic and pulp and paper industry waste water. Saudi J Biol Sci 2023; 30:103850. [PMID: 38020226 PMCID: PMC10663831 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2023.103850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study demonstrates the potential of an integrated vertical flow-constructed wetland (IVFCW) for simultaneously treating black liquor and domestic wastewater. IVFCW was operated and monitored for 12 samples with the frequency of one sample per week with the following specifications viz,4 L of wastewater, a blend of 1:1 of pulp and paper industry effluent (black liquor BL), and domestic wastewater, was fed daily in a continuous mode with organic loading rate (OLR) of 1230 mg COD/L-Day, at a temperature range of 40-45℃ (natural temperature of the workstation). Valves controlled each chamber's hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 3 days and flow rate of 10 mL/minute. The IVFCW showed remarkable efficiency in removing various pollutants, including total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS), by 100 % and 83 %, respectively, and organic contaminants such as chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) by 80 % and 81 %, respectively. Moreover, the IVFCW efficiently reduced nutrients such as sulfates (SO₄-2), phosphates (PO₄-3), and total nitrogen by about 81 %, 63 %, and 61 %, respectively. The treatment also led to the reduction of lignin content by 83 %. Microbiological analysis revealed a significant reduction in fecal coliforms, and microbial profiling of Typha latifolia roots confirmed the presence of bacteria involved in lignin degradation. Seed germination and seedling survival were found to be negativelyaffected by untreated wastewater in a phytotoxicity study, suggesting that the wastewater's toxic chemicals could be harmful to plant life.This study highlights the effectiveness of IVFCW as a sustainable, economically viable, and resilient wastewater treatment system for mitigating environmental concerns related to the release of untreated wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabassum Rasool
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ishtiaq Ali
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
| | - Asif Jamal
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
| | - Zaixing Huang
- Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Wyoming University, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Michael Urynowicz
- Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Wyoming University, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
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Kumar V, Verma P. A critical review on environmental risk and toxic hazards of refractory pollutants discharged in chlorolignin waste of pulp and paper mills and their remediation approaches for environmental safety. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 236:116728. [PMID: 37495063 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Agro-based pulp and paper mills (PPMs) inevitably produce numerous refractory pollutants in their wastewater, including chlorolignin, chlorophenols, chlorocatechols, chloroguaiacol, cyanide, furan, dioxins, and other organic compounds, as well as various heavy metals, such as nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), etc. These pollutants pose significant threats to aquatic and terrestrial life due to their cytogenotoxicity, mutagenicity, impact on sexual organs, hormonal interference, endocrine disruption, and allergenic response. Consequently, it is crucial to reclaim pulp paper mill wastewater (PPMW) with high loads of refractory pollutants through effective and environmentally sustainable practices to minimize the presence of these chemicals and ensure environmental safety. However, there is currently no comprehensive published review providing up-to-date knowledge on the fate of refractory pollutants from PPMW in soil and aquatic environments, along with valuable insights into the associated health hazards and remediation methods. This critical review aims to shed light on the potential adverse effects of refractory pollutants from PPMW on natural ecosystems and living organisms. It explores existing effective treatment technologies for remediating these pollutants from wastewater, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each approach, all in pursuit of environmental safety. Special emphasis is placed on emerging technologies used to decontaminate wastewater discharged from PPMs, ensuring the preservation of the environment. Additionally, this review addresses the major challenges and proposes future research directions for the proper disposal of PPMW. It serves as a comprehensive source of knowledge on the environmental toxicity and risks associated with refractory pollutants in PPMW, making it a valuable reference for policymakers and researchers when selecting appropriate technologies for remediation. The scientific community, concerned with mitigating the widespread risks posed by refractory pollutants from PPMs, is expected to take a keen interest in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Kumar
- Bioprocess and Bioenergy Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, Ajmer, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Pradeep Verma
- Bioprocess and Bioenergy Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, Ajmer, 305817, Rajasthan, India.
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9
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An X, Li N, Zhang S, Han Y, Zhang Q. Integration of proteome and metabolome profiling to reveal heat stress response and tolerance mechanisms of Serratia sp. AXJ-M for the bioremediation of papermaking black liquor. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 450:131092. [PMID: 36857821 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The use of thermophilic bacteria for treating paper black liquor seems to be an efficient bioremediation strategy. In our previous work, the lignin-degrading bacterium Serratia sp. AXJ-M exhibited excellent heat tolerance ability. However, the molecular mechanism of its response to heat stress is unknown. Therefore, the heat stress response of AXJ-M was investigated using morphological and analytical methods. A comparative genomics analysis revealed interesting insights into the adaptability of the genetic basis of AXJ-M to harsh environments. Moreover, TMT quantitative proteomic analysis and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) assays revealed that proteins related to both component systems, ABC transporters, carbohydrate, and amino metabolism, energy metabolism, etc., were differentially expressed. The non-targeted metabolome analysis revealed that the metabolic pathways associated with the fatty acid and amino acid biosynthesis and metabolism, together with the TCA cycle were most significantly enriched. Furthermore, integrated omics suggested that AXJ-M made metabolic adaptations to compensate for the increased energy demand caused by adverse environmental stimuli. The dominant heat regulator HspQ mediated heat adaptation of AXJ-M at high temperatures and modulated DyP expression. To summarize, the present study sheds light on the effect of high temperature on the lignin-degrading bacterium and its tolerance and underlying regulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiao An
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China.
| | - Ningjian Li
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China
| | - Shulin Zhang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China
| | - Yanyan Han
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China
| | - Qinghua Zhang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, PR China
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10
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Jain D, Navariya JK, Bhojiya AA, Singh A, Mohanty SR, Upadhyay SK. Bioprospecting of novel ligninolytic bacteria for effective bioremediation of agricultural by-product and synthetic pollutant dyes. Microbiol Res 2023; 270:127330. [PMID: 36848699 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2023.127330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Lignin is a significant renewable carbon source that needs to be exploited to manufacture bio-ethanol and chemical feedstocks. Lignin mimicking methylene blue (MB) dye is widely used in industries and causes water pollution. Using kraft lignin, methylene blue, and guaiacol as a full carbon source, 27 lignin-degrading bacteria (LDB) were isolated from 12 distinct traditional organic manures for the current investigation. The ligninolytic potential of 27 lignin-degrading bacteria was assessed by qualitative and quantitative assay. In a qualitative plate assay, the LDB-25 strain produced the largest zone, measuring 6.32 ± 0.297, on MSM-L-kraft lignin plates, while the LDB-23 strain produced the largest zone, measuring 3.44 ± 0.413, on MSM-L-Guaiacol plates. The LDB-9 strain in MSM-L-kraft lignin broth was able to decolorize lignin to a maximum of 38.327 ± 0.011% in a quantitative lignin degradation assay, which was later verified by FTIR assay. In contrast, LDB-20 produced the highest decolorization (49.633 ± 0.017%) in the MSM-L-Methylene blue broth. The highest manganese peroxidase enzyme activity, measuring 6322.314 ± 0.034 U L-1, was found in the LDB-25 strain, while the highest laccase enzyme activity, measuring 1.5105 ± 0.017 U L-1, was found in the LDB-23 strain. A preliminary examination into the biodegradation of rice straw using effective LDB was carried out, and efficient lignin-degrading bacteria were identified using 16SrDNA sequencing. SEM investigations also supported lignin degradation. LDB-8 strain had the highest percentage of lignin degradation (52.86%), followed by LDB-25, LDB-20, and LDB-9. These lignin-degrading bacteria have the ability to significantly reduce lignin and lignin-analog environmental contaminants, therefore they can be further researched for effective bio-waste management mediated breakdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devendra Jain
- All India Network Project on Soil Biodiversity and Biofertilizers, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur 313001, India.
| | - Jitendra Kumar Navariya
- All India Network Project on Soil Biodiversity and Biofertilizers, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur 313001, India
| | - Ali Asger Bhojiya
- All India Network Project on Soil Biodiversity and Biofertilizers, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur 313001, India; Faculty of Science, US Ostwal Science, Arts and Commerce College, Mangalwad, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan 302024, India
| | - Abhijeet Singh
- Department of Biosciences, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur 303007, India
| | - Santosh Ranjan Mohanty
- All India Network Project on Soil Biodiversity-Biofertilizers, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal 462038, India
| | - Sudhir K Upadhyay
- Department of Environmental Science, V.B.S. Purvanchal University, Jaunpur 222003, India.
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11
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Rodriguez-Yupanqui M, De La Cruz-Noriega M, Quiñones C, Otiniano NM, Quezada-Alvarez MA, Rojas-Villacorta W, Vergara-Medina GA, León-Vargas FR, Solís-Muñoz H, Rojas-Flores S. Lignin-Degrading Bacteria in Paper Mill Sludge. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1168. [PMID: 37317142 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The effluents generated in the paper industry, such as black liquor, have a high content of lignin and other toxic components; however, they represent a source of lignin-degrading bacteria with biotechnological potential. Therefore, the present study aimed to isolate and identify lignin-degrading bacteria species in paper mill sludge. A primary isolation was carried out from samples of sludge present in environments around a paper company located in the province of Ascope (Peru). Bacteria selection was made by the degradation of Lignin Kraft as the only carbon source in a solid medium. Finally, the laccase activity (Um-L-1) of each selected bacteria was determined by oxidation of 2,2'-azinobis-(3-etilbencenotiazolina-6-sulfonate) (ABTS). Bacterial species with laccase activity were identified by molecular biology techniques. Seven species of bacteria with laccase activity and the ability to degrade lignin were identified. The bacteria Agrobacterium tumefasciens (2), Klebsiella grimontii (1), and Beijeinckia fluminensis (1) were reported for first time. K. grimowntii and B. fluminensis presented the highest laccase activity, with values of 0.319 ± 0.005 UmL-1 and 0.329 ± 0.004 UmL-1, respectively. In conclusion, paper mill sludge may represent a source of lignin-degrading bacteria with laccase activity, and they could have potential biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magda Rodriguez-Yupanqui
- Escuela de Ingeniería Ambiental, Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo 13007, Peru
| | | | - Claudio Quiñones
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología e Ingeniería Genética, Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo 13011, Peru
| | - Nélida Milly Otiniano
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad César Vallejo, Trujillo 13001, Peru
| | | | | | - Gino A Vergara-Medina
- Facultad de Ingeniería Civil y Ambiental, Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Chachapoyas 01001, Peru
| | - Frank R León-Vargas
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana, Iquitos 16002, Peru
| | - Haniel Solís-Muñoz
- Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Cesar Vallejo, Trujillo 13007, Peru
| | - Segundo Rojas-Flores
- Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Autónoma del Perú, Lima 15842, Peru
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12
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Genome sequence analysis and characterization of Bacillus altitudinis B12, a polylactic acid- and keratin-degrading bacterium. Mol Genet Genomics 2023; 298:389-398. [PMID: 36585993 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-022-01989-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Keratin-rich wastes, mainly in the form of feathers, are recalcitrant residues generated in high amounts as by-products in chicken farms and food industry. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second most common biodegradable polymer found in commercial plastics, which is not easily degraded by microbial activity. This work reports the 3.8-Mb genome of Bacillus altitudinis B12, a highly efficient PLA- and keratin-degrading bacterium, with potential for environmental friendly biotechnological applications in the feed, fertilizer, detergent, leather, and pharmaceutical industries. The whole genome sequence of B. altitudinis B12 revealed that this strain (which had been previously misclassified as Bacillus pumilus B12) is closely related to the B. altitudinis strains ER5, W3, and GR-8. A total of 4056 coding sequences were annotated using the RAST server, of which 2484 are core genes of the pan genome of B. altitudinis and 171 are unique to this strain. According to the sequence analysis, B. pumilus B12 has a predicted secretome of 353 proteins, among which a keratinase and a PLA depolymerase were identified by sequence analysis. The presence of these two enzymes could explain the characterized PLA and keratin biodegradation capability of the strain.
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13
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Mandal DD, Singh G, Majumdar S, Chanda P. Challenges in developing strategies for the valorization of lignin-a major pollutant of the paper mill industry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:11119-11140. [PMID: 36504305 PMCID: PMC9742045 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24022-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Apart from protecting the environment from undesired waste impacts, wastewater treatment is a crucial platform for recovery. The exploitation of suitable technology to transform the wastes from pulp and paper industries (PPI) to value-added products is vital from an environmental and socio-economic point of view that will impact everyday life. As the volume and complexity of wastewater increase in a rapidly urbanizing world, the challenge of maintaining efficient wastewater treatment in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly manner must be met. In addition to producing treated water, the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) has a large amount of paper mill sludge (PMS) daily. Sludge management and disposal are significant problems associated with wastewater treatment plants. Applying the biorefinery concept is necessary for PPI from an environmental point of view and because of the piles of valuables contained therein in the form of waste. This will provide a renewable source for producing valuables and bio-energy and aid in making the overall process more economical and environmentally sustainable. Therefore, it is compulsory to continue inquiry on different applications of wastes, with proper justification of the environmental and economic factors. This review discusses current trends and challenges in wastewater management and the bio-valorization of paper mills. Lignin has been highlighted as a critical component for generating valuables, and its recovery prospects from solid and liquid PPI waste have been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Dasgupta Mandal
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, Durgapur, 713209 West Bengal India
| | - Gaurav Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, Durgapur, 713209 West Bengal India
| | - Subhasree Majumdar
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, Durgapur, 713209 West Bengal India
- Department of Zoology, Sonamukhi College, Sonamukhi, Bankura, 722207 West Bengal India
| | - Protik Chanda
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, Mahatma Gandhi Avenue, Durgapur, 713209 West Bengal India
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14
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Wang Y, Chen X, Wu B, Ma T, Jiang H, Mi Y, Jiang C, Zang H, Zhao X, Li C. Potential and mechanism for bioremediation of papermaking black liquor by a psychrotrophic lignin-degrading bacterium, Arthrobacter sp. C2. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 439:129534. [PMID: 35850064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
To meet the challenge of bioremediation of black liquor in pulp and paper mills at low temperatures, a psychrotrophic lignin-degrading bacterium was employed in black liquor treatment for the first time. In this study, Arthrobacter sp. C2 exhibited excellent cold adaptability and lignin degradation ability, with a lignin degradation rate of 65.5% and a mineralization rate of 43.9% for 3 g/L lignin at 15 °C. Bioinformatics analysis and multiple experiments confirmed that cold shock protein 1 (Csp1) was the dominant cold regulator of strain C2, and dye-decolorizing peroxidase (DyP) played a crucial role in lignin degradation. Moreover, structural equation modeling (SEM), mRNA monitoring, and phenotypic variation analysis demonstrated that Csp1 not only mediated cold adaptation but also modulated DyP activity by controlling dyp gene expression, thus driving lignin depolymerization for strain C2 at low temperatures. Furthermore, 96.4% of color, 64.2% of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and 100% of nitrate nitrogen (NO₃--N) were removed from papermaking black liquor by strain C2 within 15 days at 15 °C. This study provides insights into the association between the cold regulator and catalytic enzyme of psychrotrophic bacteria and offers a feasible alternative strategy for the bioremediation of papermaking black liquor in cold regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Xi Chen
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Bowen Wu
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Tian Ma
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Hanyi Jiang
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Yaozu Mi
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Cheng Jiang
- College of Life Sciences, Resources and Environment, Yichun University, Yichun 336000, Jiangxi, PR China
| | - Hailian Zang
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Xinyue Zhao
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Chunyan Li
- College of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, Heilongjiang, PR China.
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15
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Kumar R, Singh A, Maurya A, Yadav P, Yadav A, Chowdhary P, Raj A. Effective bioremediation of pulp and paper mill wastewater using Bacillus cereus as a possible kraft lignin-degrading bacterium. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 352:127076. [PMID: 35351569 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The effective degradation of KL from paper mill effluent is an important for environmental safety. This research is primarily concerned with the identification of KL-degrading Bacillus cereus from activated sludge and their possible use for the degradation of Kraft lignin (KL). This strain was involved in the production of lignin peroxidase-LiP (3.20 U/mL), manganese peroxidase-MnP (20.36 U/mL), and laccase (21.35 U/mL) enzymes, which were responsible for high KL degradation (89%) and decolorization (40%) at 1000 mg/L KL in 3 days. The SEM-EDS, UV-Vis, FTIR, and GC-MS analysis were used to analyze the bacterial cell and KL interactions to trace the KL degradation process. The significant reduction of pollutants (KL-72.5%, color-62.0%, COD-45.05%) and reduction in toxicity (80%) of bacterial-treated effluent indicated that B. cereus has the potential to be used in the degradation of pollutants from paper mill effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Kumar
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
| | - Anjali Singh
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Annapurna Maurya
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
| | - Pooja Yadav
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ashutosh Yadav
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Pankaj Chowdhary
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Abhay Raj
- Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India.
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