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Ghosh Dastidar R, Banerjee S, Lal PB, Ghosh Dastidar S. Multifaceted Roles of AFG3L2, a Mitochondrial ATPase in Relation to Neurological Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:3788-3808. [PMID: 38012514 PMCID: PMC11236935 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03768-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
AFG3L2 is a zinc metalloprotease and an ATPase localized in an inner mitochondrial membrane involved in mitochondrial quality control of several nuclear- and mitochondrial-encoded proteins. Mutations in AFG3L2 lead to diseases like slow progressive ataxia, which is a neurological disorder. This review delineates the cellular functions of AFG3L2 and its dysfunction that leads to major clinical outcomes, which include spinocerebellar ataxia type 28, spastic ataxia type 5, and optic atrophy type 12. It summarizes all relevant AFG3L2 mutations associated with the clinical outcomes to understand the detailed mechanisms attributable to its structure-related multifaceted roles in proteostasis and quality control. We face early diagnostic challenges of ataxia and optic neuropathy due to asymptomatic parents and variable clinical manifestations due to heterozygosity/homozygosity of AFG3L2 mutations. This review intends to promote AFG3L2 as a putative prognostic or diagnostic marker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranita Ghosh Dastidar
- Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Madhava Nagar, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Saradindu Banerjee
- Centre for Molecular Neurosciences, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Madhava Nagar, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Piyush Behari Lal
- Department of Microbiology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Madhava Nagar, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Somasish Ghosh Dastidar
- Centre for Molecular Neurosciences, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Madhava Nagar, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
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2
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Siqueira RC. Photobiomodulation Using Light-Emitting Diode (LED) for Treatment of Retinal Diseases. Clin Ophthalmol 2024; 18:215-225. [PMID: 38283180 PMCID: PMC10813238 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s441962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a type of phototherapy that employs light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or low-power lasers to selectively administer specific wavelengths of visible light, ranging from 500 to 1000 nm, including near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths. LEDs are advantageous compared to lasers due to their ability to treat large areas at a lower cost, lack of tissue damage potential in humans, and reduced risk of eye-related accidents. The ophthalmology community has recently taken interest in PBM as a promising novel approach for managing various retinal conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, retinopathy of prematurity, retinitis pigmentosa, diabetic retinopathy, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, amblyopia, methanol-induced retinal damage, and potentially others. This review critically assesses the existing body of research on PBM applications in the retina, focusing on elucidating the underlying mechanisms of action and evaluating the clinical outcomes associated with this therapeutic modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubens Camargo Siqueira
- Department of Retina, Rubens Siqueira Research Center, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Postgraduate Department, Faculty of Medicine of São José do Rio Preto (FAMERP), São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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3
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Ladero M, Reche-Sainz JA, Gallardo ME. Hereditary Optic Neuropathies: A Systematic Review on the Interplay between Biomaterials and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Bioengineering (Basel) 2024; 11:52. [PMID: 38247929 PMCID: PMC10813088 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering11010052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Hereditary optic neuropathies (HONs) such as dominant optic atrophy (DOA) and Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON) are mitochondrial diseases characterized by a degenerative loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and are a cause of blindness worldwide. To date, there are only limited disease-modifying treatments for these disorders. The discovery of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has opened several promising opportunities in the field of HON research and the search for therapeutic approaches. This systematic review is focused on the two most frequent HONs (LHON and DOA) and on the recent studies related to the application of human iPSC technology in combination with biomaterials technology for their potential use in the development of RGC replacement therapies with the final aim of the improvement or even the restoration of the vision of HON patients. To this purpose, the combination of natural and synthetic biomaterials modified with peptides, neurotrophic factors, and other low- to medium-molecular weight compounds, mimicking the ocular extracellular matrices, with human iPSC or iPSC-derived cell retinal progenitors holds enormous potential to be exploited in the near future for the generation of transplantable RGC populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ladero
- FQPIMA Group, Materials and Chemical Engineering Department, Chemical Sciences School, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose Alberto Reche-Sainz
- Ophthalmology Unit, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
- Translational Research with iPS Cells Group, Research Institute of Hospital 12 de Octubre, imas12, 28041 Madrid, Spain
| | - M. Esther Gallardo
- Translational Research with iPS Cells Group, Research Institute of Hospital 12 de Octubre, imas12, 28041 Madrid, Spain
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4
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Camacho DK, Go CC, Chaqour B, Shindler KS, Ross AG. Emerging Gene Therapy Technologies for Retinal Ganglion Cell Neuroprotection. J Neuroophthalmol 2023; 43:330-340. [PMID: 37440418 PMCID: PMC10527513 DOI: 10.1097/wno.0000000000001955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Optic neuropathies encompass a breadth of diseases that ultimately result in dysfunction and/or loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Although visual impairment from optic neuropathies is common, there is a lack of effective clinical treatments. Addressing a critical need for novel interventions, preclinical studies have been generating a growing body of evidence that identify promising new drug-based and cell-based therapies. Gene therapy is another emerging therapeutic field that offers the potential of specifically and robustly increasing long-term RGC survival in optic neuropathies. Gene therapy offers additional benefits of driving improvements following a single treatment administration, and it can be designed to target a variety of pathways that may be involved in individual optic neuropathies or across multiple etiologies. This review explores the history of gene therapy, the fundamentals of its application, and the emerging development of gene therapy technology as it relates to treatment of optic neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K. Camacho
- F. M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Cammille C. Go
- F. M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Brahim Chaqour
- F. M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Kenneth S. Shindler
- F. M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Ahmara G. Ross
- F. M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
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5
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Charif M, Chevrollier A, Gueguen N, Kane S, Bris C, Goudenège D, Desquiret-Dumas V, Meunier I, Mochel F, Jeanjean L, Varenne F, Procaccio V, Reynier P, Bonneau D, Amati-Bonneau P, Lenaers G. Next-Generation Sequencing Identifies Novel PMPCA Variants in Patients with Late-Onset Dominant Optic Atrophy. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:1202. [PMID: 35885985 PMCID: PMC9320445 DOI: 10.3390/genes13071202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA) is one of the most common inherited mitochondrial diseases, leading to blindness. It is caused by the chronic degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons forming the optic nerve. Until now, DOA has been mainly associated with genes encoding proteins involved in mitochondrial network dynamics. Using next-generation and exome sequencing, we identified for the first time heterozygous PMPCA variants having a causative role in the pathology of late-onset primary DOA in five patients. PMPCA encodes an α subunit of the mitochondrial peptidase (MPP), responsible for the cleavage and maturation of the mitochondrial precursor proteins imported from the cytoplasm into mitochondria. Recently, PMPCA has been identified as the gene responsible for Autosomal Recessive Cerebellar Ataxia type 2 (SCAR2) and another severe recessive mitochondrial disease. In this study, four PMPCA variants were identified, two are frameshifts (c.309delA and c.820delG) classified as pathogenic and two are missenses (c.1363G>A and c.1547G>A) classified with uncertain pathological significance. Functional assays on patients’ fibroblasts show a hyperconnection of the mitochondrial network and revealed that frameshift variants reduced α-MPP levels, while not significantly affecting the respiratory machinery. These results suggest that alterations in mitochondrial peptidase function can affect the fusion-fission balance, a key element in maintaining the physiology of retinal ganglion cells, and consequently lead to their progressive degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majida Charif
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Genetics and Immuno-Cell Therapy Team, Mohammed First University, Oujda 60000, Morocco
| | - Arnaud Chevrollier
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
| | - Naïg Gueguen
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Selma Kane
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
| | - Céline Bris
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - David Goudenège
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Valerie Desquiret-Dumas
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Isabelle Meunier
- National Reference Centre for Inherited Sensory Diseases, University Hospital of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France;
- Institut des Neurosciences de Montpellier, INSERM U1051, Université de Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Fanny Mochel
- Department of Genetics, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital, 75013 Paris, France;
| | - Luc Jeanjean
- Department of Ophthalmology, Nîmes University Hospital, CEDEX 9, 30900 Nîmes, France;
| | - Fanny Varenne
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hôpital Pierre Paul Riquet CHU Purpan, 31300 Toulouse, France;
| | - Vincent Procaccio
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Genetics, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Pascal Reynier
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Dominique Bonneau
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Genetics, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Patrizia Amati-Bonneau
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Guy Lenaers
- MitoLab Team, UMR CNRS 6015-INSERM U1083, Institut MitoVasc, SFR ICAT, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France; (M.C.); (A.C.); (N.G.); (S.K.); (C.B.); (D.G.); (V.D.-D.); (V.P.); (P.R.); (D.B.); (P.A.-B.)
- Service de Neurologie, University Hospital Angers, 49933 Angers, France
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Mohammad G, Kowluru RA. Mitochondrial Dynamics in the Metabolic Memory of Diabetic Retinopathy. J Diabetes Res 2022; 2022:3555889. [PMID: 35399705 PMCID: PMC8989559 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3555889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria play a central role in the development of diabetic retinopathy and in the metabolic memory associated with its continued progression. Mitochondria have a regulated fusion fission process, which is essential for their homeostasis. One of the major fission proteins, dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), is recruited to the mitochondria by fission protein 1 (Fis1) to initiate fragmentation. Our aim is to investigate the role of Drp1 in the altered mitochondrial dynamics in the continued progression of diabetic retinopathy. Methods. Drp1 activation, mitochondrial transport, and Drp1-Fis1 interactions were analyzed in retinal endothelial cells incubated in 20 mM glucose (HG), followed by 5 mM glucose (NG), for four days each (HG-NG group). The results were confirmed in retinal microvessels from streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats with poor glycemia (>350 mg/dl blood glucose, PC group), followed by normal glycemia (~100 mg/dl), for four months each (PC-GC group). Results. GTPase activity of Drp1, Fis1-Drp1 interactions, mitochondrial levels of Drp1, and fragmentation of the mitochondria were elevated in HG group. Mitochondrial Division Inhibitor 1 (Mdiv) or Drp1-siRNA attenuated Drp1 activation, mitochondrial fragmentation, and DNA damage. In HG-NG group, NG failed to ameliorate Drp1 activation and Drp1-Fis1 interactions, and the mitochondria remained fragmented. However, Mdiv supplementation in normal glucose, which had followed four days of high glucose (HG-NG/Mdiv group), inhibited Drp1 activation, mitochondrial fragmentation, and increase in ROS and prevented mitochondrial damage. Retinal microvessels from the rats in PC and PC-GC groups had similar Drp1 activation. Conclusion. Thus, Drp1 plays a major role in mitochondrial homeostasis in diabetic retinopathy and in the metabolic memory phenomenon associated with its continued progression. Supplementation of normal glycemia with a Drp1 inhibitor could retard development and further progression of diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghulam Mohammad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual & Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Renu A. Kowluru
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual & Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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7
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Hereditary Optic Neuropathies: Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based 2D/3D Approaches. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12010112. [PMID: 33477675 PMCID: PMC7831942 DOI: 10.3390/genes12010112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inherited optic neuropathies share visual impairment due to the degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) as the hallmark of the disease. This group of genetic disorders are caused by mutations in nuclear genes or in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). An impaired mitochondrial function is the underlying mechanism of these diseases. Currently, optic neuropathies lack an effective treatment, and the implementation of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology would entail a huge step forward. The generation of iPSC-derived RGCs would allow faithfully modeling these disorders, and these RGCs would represent an appealing platform for drug screening as well, paving the way for a proper therapy. Here, we review the ongoing two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) approaches based on iPSCs and their applications, taking into account the more innovative technologies, which include tissue engineering or microfluidics.
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Giacomini T, Gamucci A, Pisciotta L, Nesti C, Fiorillo C, Doccini S, Morana G, Nobili L, Santorelli FM, Mancardi MM, De Grandis E. Optic Atrophy and Generalized Chorea in a Patient Harboring an OPA10/RTN4IP1 Pathogenic Variant. Neuropediatrics 2020; 51:425-429. [PMID: 32392611 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1708539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RTN4IP1 pathogenic variants (OPA10 syndrome) have been described in patients with early-onset recessive optic neuropathy and recently associated with a broader clinical spectrum, from isolated optic neuropathy to severe encephalopathies with epilepsy. Here we present a case of a patient with a complex clinical picture characterized by bilateral optic nerve atrophy, horizontal nystagmus, myopia, mild intellectual disability, generalized chorea, isolated small subependymal heterotopia, and asynchronous self-resolving midbrain MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) lesions. By using massive gene sequencing, we identified in this patient the c.308G > A (p.Arg103His) homozygous pathogenic variant in the RTN4IP1 gene. Complex movement disorders and relapsing-remitting neuroradiological lesions have not been previously reported in this condition. Our case expands the clinical spectrum of OPA10 syndrome and opens new opportunities for the molecular diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thea Giacomini
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessandra Gamucci
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Livia Pisciotta
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Claudia Nesti
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
| | - Chiara Fiorillo
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Unit of Paediatric Neurology and Muscular Diseases, IRCSS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Stefano Doccini
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Morana
- Unit of Neuroradiology, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Lino Nobili
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Unit of Child Neuropsychiatry, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Filippo M Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Elisa De Grandis
- Department of Neurosciences, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal, and Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.,Unit of Child Neuropsychiatry, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
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9
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Ahuja AS, Selvam P, Vadlamudi C, Chopra H, Richter JE, Macklin SK, Samreen A, Helmi H, Mohammaad AN, Hines S, Davila MC, Atwal PS, Caulfield TR. Genomics combined with a protein informatics platform to assess a novel pathogenic variant c.1024 A>G (p.K342E) in OPA1 in a patient with autosomal dominant optic atrophy. Ophthalmic Genet 2020; 41:563-569. [PMID: 32940104 DOI: 10.1080/13816810.2020.1814344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (ADOA) is caused by mutations in the Optic Atrophy 1 Gene which disrupts the OPA1 protein. This disruption affects the normal function of the protein; impairs fusion of the mitochondrial inner membrane; and prevents normal OPA1 protein degradation. These events cause damage in retinal ganglion cells that could affect the patients with symptoms ranging from none to legally blind. MATERIALS AND METHODS Our study identifies a missense variant mutation, c.1024 A > G (p.K342E), in OPA1 gene causing ADOA. Diagnosed clinically in three family members and the presence of this mutation was confirmed in two members by genetic testing. Pathogenic variants in OPA1 impact the secondary protein structure and function by causing non-conservative amino acid substitutions. We also modeled this mutation and compared it to the wild type using statistical mechanics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The proband's pathogenic variant, c.1024 A > G (p.K342E), is located in the GTPase domain of OPA1 and causes changes in the protein structure by affecting the oligomerization pattern thus resulting in ADOA. Identifying the pathogenic potential of the missense mutations in the OPA1 gene using neoteric protein modeling techniques would help in the early detection of ADOA in patients who have family history of blindness. This action would help in providing early follow up, possible treatment in the future, and genetic counseling. Abbreviations: ADOA: Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy; CYCS: Caspase Activator Cytochrome C; OPA1: Optic Atrophy Gene 1; RGC: Retinal Ganglion Cells; VUS: Variant of Uncertain Significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhimanyu S Ahuja
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University , Boca Raton, Florida, USA
| | - Pavalan Selvam
- Department of Clinical Genomics, Atwal Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Charitha Vadlamudi
- Department of Clinical Genomics, Atwal Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Hayley Chopra
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine , Houston, Texas, USA
| | | | | | - Ayesha Samreen
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine , Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Haytham Helmi
- Department of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Ahmed N Mohammaad
- Department of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Stephanie Hines
- Department of Medicine, Division of Diagnostic & Consultative Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | | | - Paldeep S Atwal
- Department of Clinical Genomics, Atwal Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Thomas R Caulfield
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA.,Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA.,Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic , Jacksonville, Florida, USA
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10
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Bahr T, Welburn K, Donnelly J, Bai Y. Emerging model systems and treatment approaches for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: Challenges and opportunities. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2020; 1866:165743. [PMID: 32105823 PMCID: PMC9252426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a mitochondrial disease mainly affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). The pathogenesis of LHON remains ill-characterized due to a historic lack of effective disease models. Promising models have recently begun to emerge; however, less effective models remain popular. Many such models represent LHON using non-neuronal cells or assume that mutant mtDNA alone is sufficient to model the disease. This is problematic because context-specific factors play a significant role in LHON pathogenesis, as the mtDNA mutation itself is necessary but not sufficient to cause LHON. Effective models of LHON should be capable of demonstrating processes that distinguish healthy carrier cells from diseased cells. In light of these considerations, we review the pathophysiology of LHON as it relates to old, new and future models. We further discuss treatments for LHON and unanswered questions that might be explored using these new model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Bahr
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 7703 Floyd Curl Drive San Antonio, Texas 78229. First Author
| | - Kyle Welburn
- University of the Incarnate Word School of Medicine 7615 Kennedy Hill Drive, San Antonio, Texas 78235 Contributing Author
| | - Jonathan Donnelly
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 7703 Floyd Curl Drive San Antonio, Texas 78229. Contributing author
| | - Yidong Bai
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 7703 Floyd Curl Drive San Antonio, Texas 78229
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11
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The expression and role of PIDD in retina after optic nerve crush. J Mol Histol 2020; 51:89-97. [PMID: 32065357 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-020-09860-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
To examine the expression of P53-induced protein with a death domain (PIDD) at retina in animal model of optic nerve crush (ONC) and to investigate the role of PIDD in retinal glial activation and NF-κB activation induced by optic nerve damage, ONC animal model was established in Sprague-Dawley rats. PIDD has three isoforms (Isof); Western blot was performed to examine the expression of PIDD (Isof-1, Isof-2, and Isof-3, respectively) in retina at different time points after ONC. Retinal glial activation is closely associated with retinal neuronal death and is monitored by the expression of GFAP+ glial cells and IBA1+ microglia, then activated microglia leads to inflammatory cytokine production. NF-kB activation in glial cells also can promote neuronal death. In our study, the role of PIDD in retinal glial activation and NF-kB activation was investigated with PIDD inhibition selectively. PIDD expression (Isof-1 and Isof-3) was dramatically increased, and peaked at 3 days after ONC, while Isof-2 did not show any difference. In the ONC animal model, the number of GFAP+ glial cells and IBA1+ microglia in retinal layers was increased significantly, inflammatory cytokine production was upregulated, and NF-κB in glial cell was also activated. Moreover, those responses induced by optic nerve damage were attenuated with PIDD inhibition, which indicated that PIDD could regulate retinal glial activation, neuro-inflammation, and NF-κB activation. These results provided the direct demonstration that the PIDD (Isof-1and Isof-3) was overexpressed in retina after ONC, and PIDD may be involved in retinal neurodegenerative diseases by regulating retinal glial activation and NF-κB activation.
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12
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Hartman JH, Gonzalez-Hunt C, Hall SM, Ryde IT, Caldwell KA, Caldwell GA, Meyer JN. Genetic Defects in Mitochondrial Dynamics in Caenorhabditis elegans Impact Ultraviolet C Radiation- and 6-hydroxydopamine-Induced Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20133202. [PMID: 31261893 PMCID: PMC6651461 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20133202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders involving devastating loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Early steps in PD pathogenesis include mitochondrial dysfunction, and mutations in mitochondrial genes have been linked to familial forms of the disease. However, low penetrance of mutations indicates a likely important role for environmental factors in PD risk through gene by environment interactions. Herein, we study how genetic deficiencies in mitochondrial dynamics processes including fission, fusion, and mitophagy interact with environmental exposures to impact neurodegeneration. Methods: We utilized the powerful model organism Caenorhabditis elegans to study ultraviolet C radiation (UVC)- and 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of fluorescently-tagged dopaminergic neurons in the background of fusion deficiency (MFN1/2 homolog, fzo-1), fission deficiency (DMN1L homolog, drp-1), and mitochondria-specific autophagy (mitophagy) deficiency (PINK1 and PRKN homologs, pink-1 and pdr-1). Results: Overall, we found that deficiency in either mitochondrial fusion or fission sensitizes nematodes to UVC exposure (used to model common environmental pollutants) but protects from 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurodegeneration. By contrast, mitophagy deficiency makes animals more sensitive to these stressors with an interesting exception—pink-1 deficiency conferred remarkable protection from 6-hydroxydopamine. We found that this protection could not be explained by compensatory antioxidant gene expression in pink-1 mutants or by differences in mitochondrial morphology. Conclusions: Together, our results support a strong role for gene by environment interactions in driving dopaminergic neurodegeneration and suggest that genetic deficiency in mitochondrial processes can have complex effects on neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica H Hartman
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - Samantha M Hall
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Ian T Ryde
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Kim A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Guy A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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13
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Mitochondria in Neuroprotection by Phytochemicals: Bioactive Polyphenols Modulate Mitochondrial Apoptosis System, Function and Structure. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20102451. [PMID: 31108962 PMCID: PMC6566187 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In aging and neurodegenerative diseases, loss of distinct type of neurons characterizes disease-specific pathological and clinical features, and mitochondria play a pivotal role in neuronal survival and death. Mitochondria are now considered as the organelle to modulate cellular signal pathways and functions, not only to produce energy and reactive oxygen species. Oxidative stress, deficit of neurotrophic factors, and multiple other factors impair mitochondrial function and induce cell death. Multi-functional plant polyphenols, major groups of phytochemicals, are proposed as one of most promising mitochondria-targeting medicine to preserve the activity and structure of mitochondria and neurons. Polyphenols can scavenge reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and activate redox-responsible transcription factors to regulate expression of genes, coding antioxidants, anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein family, and pro-survival neurotrophic factors. In mitochondria, polyphenols can directly regulate the mitochondrial apoptosis system either in preventing or promoting way. Polyphenols also modulate mitochondrial biogenesis, dynamics (fission and fusion), and autophagic degradation to keep the quality and number. This review presents the role of polyphenols in regulation of mitochondrial redox state, death signal system, and homeostasis. The dualistic redox properties of polyphenols are associated with controversial regulation of mitochondrial apoptosis system involved in the neuroprotective and anti-carcinogenic functions. Mitochondria-targeted phytochemical derivatives were synthesized based on the phenolic structure to develop a novel series of neuroprotective and anticancer compounds, which promote the bioavailability and effectiveness. Phytochemicals have shown the multiple beneficial effects in mitochondria, but further investigation is required for the clinical application.
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Valente AJ, Fonseca J, Moradi F, Foran G, Necakov A, Stuart JA. Quantification of Mitochondrial Network Characteristics in Health and Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1158:183-196. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8367-0_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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Nasca A, Nardecchia F, Commone A, Semeraro M, Legati A, Garavaglia B, Ghezzi D, Leuzzi V. Clinical and Biochemical Features in a Patient With Mitochondrial Fission Factor Gene Alteration. Front Genet 2018; 9:625. [PMID: 30581454 PMCID: PMC6292958 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial Fission Factor (MFF) is part of a protein complex that promotes mitochondria and peroxisome fission. Hitherto, only 5 patients have been reported harboring mutations in MFF, all of them with the clinical features of a very early onset Leigh-like encephalopathy. We report on an 11-year-old boy with epileptic encephalopathy. He presented with neurological regression, epileptic myoclonic seizures, severe intellectual disability, microcephaly, tetraparesis, optic atrophy, and ophthalmoplegia. Brain MRI pattern was compatible with Leigh syndrome. NGS-based analysis of a gene panel for mitochondrial disorders revealed a homozygous c.892C>T (p. Arg298*) in the MFF gene. Fluorescence staining detected abnormal morphology of mitochondria and peroxisomes in fibroblasts from the patient; a strong reduction in MFF protein levels and the presence of truncated forms were observed. No biochemical alterations denoting peroxisomal disorders were found. As reported in other disorders affecting the dynamics of intracellular organelles, our patient showed clinical features suggesting both mitochondrial and peroxisomal impairment. High levels of lactate in our case suggested an involvement of the energetic metabolism but without clear respiratory chain deficiency, while biomarkers of peroxisomal dysfunction were normal. We confirm that MFF mutations are associated with epileptic encephalopathy with Leigh-like MRI pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Nasca
- Unit of Medical Genetics and Neurogenetics, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Nardecchia
- Unit of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Commone
- Unit of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Semeraro
- Division of Metabolism and Research Unit of Metabolic Biochemistry, IRCCS, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Legati
- Unit of Medical Genetics and Neurogenetics, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Barbara Garavaglia
- Unit of Medical Genetics and Neurogenetics, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Ghezzi
- Unit of Medical Genetics and Neurogenetics, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy.,Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Leuzzi
- Unit of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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16
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Lee J, Pappalardo Z, Chopra DG, Hennings TG, Vaughn I, Lan C, Choe JJ, Ang K, Chen S, Arkin M, McManus MT, German MS, Ku GM. A Genetic Interaction Map of Insulin Production Identifies Mfi as an Inhibitor of Mitochondrial Fission. Endocrinology 2018; 159:3321-3330. [PMID: 30059978 PMCID: PMC6112596 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Insulin production by the pancreatic β cell is critical for the glucose homeostasis of the whole organism. Although the transcription factors required for insulin production are known, the upstream pathways that control insulin production are less clear. To further elucidate this regulatory network, we created a genetic interaction map of insulin production by performing ∼20,000 pairwise RNA interference knockdowns of insulin promoter regulators. Our map correctly predicted known physical complexes in the electron transport chain and a role for Spry2 in the unfolded protein response. To further validate our map, we used it to predict the function of an unannotated gene encoding a 37-kDa protein with no identifiable domains we have termed mitochondrial fission factor interactor (Mfi). We have shown that Mfi is a binding partner of the mitochondrial fission factor and that Mfi inhibits dynamin-like protein 1 recruitment to mitochondria. Our data provide a resource to understand the regulatory network of insulin promoter activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Lee
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Zachary Pappalardo
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | | | - Thomas G Hennings
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Ian Vaughn
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Christopher Lan
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Justin J Choe
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Kenny Ang
- Small Molecules Discovery Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Steven Chen
- Small Molecules Discovery Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Michelle Arkin
- Small Molecules Discovery Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Michael T McManus
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Michael S German
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Gregory M Ku
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- Correspondence: Gregory M. Ku, MD, PhD, Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, HSW 1002A, Box 0534, San Francisco, California 94143. E-mail:
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17
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Ham M, Han J, Osann K, Smith M, Kimonis V. Meta-analysis of genotype-phenotype analysis of OPA1 mutations in autosomal dominant optic atrophy. Mitochondrion 2018; 46:262-269. [PMID: 30165240 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (ADOA) is a neuro-ophthalmic disease characterized by progressive bilateral vision loss, pallor of the optic disc, central vision loss, and impairment of color vision. Additionally, a small percentage of patients experience hearing loss and ataxia, while recent studies suggest disruption of cardiac and neuromuscular functions. In order to obtain a better understanding of the genotype-phenotype correlation of the various mutations in the optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) gene, we obtained both clinical and genetic information of ADOA patients from published reports. We conducted a systematic review of published OPA1 literature and identified 408 individuals with confirmed OPA1 mutations, 120 of whom reported extra-ocular (ADOA 'plus') manifestations through their descriptions of visual and multi-systemic symptoms. Our results show that there is a significant variation in frequency of the specific exons involved between the ADOA classic and ADOA 'plus' patients. Classic ADOA groups were more likely to have mutations in exon 8 and 9, while ADOA 'plus' groups were more likely to have mutations in exons 14, 15 and 17. Additional comparisons revealed significant differences between mutation types/domains and specific ADOA 'plus' manifestations. We also found that individuals with maternally inherited OPA1 mutations were significantly more likely to develop 'plus' manifestations than those with paternally inherited mutations. Overall, this study provides novel information regarding genotype-phenotype correlations of ADOA which warrants additional recommendations added to the current clinical management of ADOA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Ham
- Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Julia Han
- Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Kathryn Osann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Moyra Smith
- Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Virginia Kimonis
- Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
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18
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Abstract
Recent decades have seen a rapid increase in reported toxic effects of drugs and pollutants on mitochondria. Researchers have also documented many genetic differences leading to mitochondrial diseases, currently reported to affect ∼1 person in 4,300, creating a large number of potential gene-environment interactions in mitochondrial toxicity. We briefly review this history, and then highlight cutting-edge areas of mitochondrial research including the role of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species in signaling; increased understanding of fundamental biological processes involved in mitochondrial homeostasis (DNA maintenance and mutagenesis, mitochondrial stress response pathways, fusion and fission, autophagy and biogenesis, and exocytosis); systemic effects resulting from mitochondrial stresses in specific cell types; mitochondrial involvement in immune function; the growing evidence of long-term effects of mitochondrial toxicity; mitochondrial-epigenetic cross-talk; and newer approaches to test chemicals for mitochondrial toxicity. We also discuss the potential importance of hormetic effects of mitochondrial stressors. Finally, we comment on future areas of research we consider critical for mitochondrial toxicology, including increased integration of clinical, experimental laboratory, and epidemiological (human and wildlife) studies; improved understanding of biomarkers in the human population; and incorporation of other factors that affect mitochondria, such as diet, exercise, age, and nonchemical stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel N Meyer
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0328
| | - Jessica H Hartman
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0328
| | - Danielle F Mello
- Nicholas School of the Environment and Integrated Toxicology and Environmental Health Program, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0328
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