Staggered chromosomal hybrid zones in the house mouse: relevance to reticulate evolution and speciation

In the house mouse there are numerous chromosomal races distinguished by different combinations of metacentric chromosomes. These may come into contact with each other and with the ancestral all-acrocentric race, and form hybrid zones. The chromosomal clines that make up these hybrid zones may be coincident or separated from each other (staggered). Such staggered hybrid zones are interesting because they may include populations of individuals homozygous for a mix of features of the hybridising races. We review the characteristics of four staggered hybrid zones in the house mouse and discuss whether they are examples of primary or secondary contact and whether they represent reticulate evolution or not. However, the most important aspect of staggered hybrid zones is that the homozygous populations within the zones have the potential to expand their distributions and become new races (a process termed 'zonal raciation'). In this way they can add to the total 'stock' of chromosomal races in the species concerned. Speciation is an infrequent phenomenon that may involve an unusual set of circumstances. Each one of the products of zonal raciation has the potential to become a new species and by having more races increases the chance of a speciation event.

Genetic analysis of autosomal and X-linked markers across a mouse hybrid zone

In this paper, we present results of the first comprehensive study of the introgression of both autosomal and sex-chromosome markers across the central European portion of the hybrid zone between two house mouse subspecies, Mus musculus musculus and M. m. domesticus. More than 1800 individuals sampled from 105 sites were analyzed with a set of allozyme loci (hopefully representing neutral or nearly neutral markers) and X-linked loci (which are assumed to be under selection). The zone center is best modeled as a single straight line independent of fine-scale local geographic or climatic conditions, being maintained by a balance between dispersal and selection against hybrids. The width (w) of the multilocus autosomal cline was estimated as 9.6 km whereas the estimate for the compound X-chromosome cline was about 4.6 km only. As the former estimate is comparable to that of the Danish portion of the zone (assumed to be much younger than the central European one), zone width does not appear to be related to its age. The strength (B) of the central barrier was estimated as about 20 km; with dispersal (sigma) of about 1 km/gen(1/2), this means effective selection (s*) is approximately 0.06-0.09 for autosomal loci and about 0.25 for X-linked loci. The number of loci under selection was estimated as N= 56-99 for autosomes and about 380 for X-linked loci. Finally, we highlight some potential pitfalls in hybrid zone analyses and in comparisons of different transects. We suggest that conclusions about parts of the mouse genome involved in reproductive isolation and speciation should be drawn with caution and that analytical approaches always providing some estimates should not be used without due care regarding the support or confidence of such estimates, especially if conclusions are based on the difference between these estimates. Finally, we recommend that analysis in two-dimensional space, dense sampling, and rigorous treatment of data, including inspection of likelihood profiles, are essential for hybrid zone studies.

Theory and speciation

The study of speciation has become one of the most active areas of evolutionary biology, and substantial progress has been made in documenting and understanding phenomena ranging from sympatric speciation and reinforcement to the evolutionary genetics of postzygotic isolation. This progress has been driven largely by empirical results, and most useful theoretical work has concentrated on making sense of empirical patterns. Given the complexity of speciation, mathematical theory is subordinate to verbal theory and generalizations about data. Nevertheless, mathematical theory can provide a useful classification of verbal theories; can help determine the biological plausibility of verbal theories; can determine whether alternative mechanisms of speciation are consistent with empirical patterns; and can occasionally provide predictions that go beyond empirical generalizations. We discuss recent examples of progress in each of these areas.

The stability of symmetric solutions to polygenic models

Analysis of multilocus evolution is usually intractable for more than n approximately 10 genes, because the frequencies of very large numbers of genotypes must be followed. An exact analysis of up to n approximately 100 loci is feasible for a symmetrical model, in which a set of unlinked loci segregate for two alleles (labeled "0" and "1") with interchangeable effects on fitness. All haploid genotypes with the same number of 1 alleles can then remain equally frequent. However, such a symmetrical solution may be unstable: for example, under stabilizing selection, populations tend to fix any one genotype which approaches the optimum. Here, we show how the 2(n)x2(n) stability matrix can be decomposed into a set of matrices, each no larger than nxn. This allows the stability of symmetrical solutions to be determined. We apply the method to stabilizing and disruptive selection in a single deme and to selection against heterozygotes in a linear cline.

Staggered clines in a hybrid zone between two chromosome races of the harvestman Gagrellopsis nodulifera (Arachnida: Opiliones)

We analyzed a hybrid zone between two chromosome races (2n = 16 and 2n = 22) of a Japanese harvestman, Gagrellopsis nodulifera Sato and Suzuki (Arachnida: Opiliones: Phalangiidae). The hybrid zone is located in the eastern part of Tottori Prefecture, western Honshu. The width of the zone is approximately 5 to 15 km. Three independent tandem fusions/fissions seem to be the main cause of the karyotypic differences between the parental races. Ten karyotypic variants were found in the hybrid zone. They differed by numbers of diploid chromosomes and trivalents detected in meiosis. In most of the collecting sites, karyotypic heterozygotes were less common than expected. A positive correlation was found between number of trivalents in a karyotype and its deficiency rate. In some sites, the deficit of heterozygous individuals was accompanied by an excess of the intermediate homozygotes. One of the three transects across the zone was studied in detail. We found that three types of single heterozygotes (2n = 17, 2n = 19 and 2n = 21) formed a series of successive, spatially separated peaks along the transect. Two types of intermediate homozygotes (2n = 18 and 2n = 20) were also spatially separated. The most parsimonious explanation of such a structure is the staggering of clines of three tandem (or Robertsonian) fusion/fission variants that differentiate the parental races caused by selection against multiple heterozygotes. Analysis of nondisjunction in single heterozygotes demonstrated that there was a strong interindividual variation in nondisjunction rate. The mean frequency of aneuploid MII in single heterozygotes was 0.10 +/- 0.03. Crossover exchanges in some critical regions of trivalents result in abnormal chromosomal configurations: chromosomes with unequal chromatids and dicentric chromosomes. Frequency of crossover-induced chromosomal abnormalities was low in single heterozygotes (approximately equal to 4%), and was unexpectedly high in the double heterozygotes (approximately equal to 15%). Selection against karyotypic heterozygotes is considered as a main evolutionary force responsible for the structuring of the hybrid zone. A positive association between diploid chromosome number and altitude was found. The race 2n = 16 tended to occupy lower altitudes than the 2n = 22 parental race. Differences in ecological preferences may be a result of previous adaptations to different environments in allopatry. A hypothesis concerning the origin and evolution of the hybrid zone is proposed.

Radiation of chromosome shuffles

Rock wallabies, Petrogale, exhibit chromosome diversity that is exceptional in marsupials, with 20 distinct chromosome races being recognized. Many of the karyotypic changes identified within Petrogale appear to be recent, although the rate of chromosome evolution varies between taxa. While the patchy distribution of Petrogale and their social structure would facilitate the fixation of novel rearrangements, these factors alone do not explain the pattern of chromosome evolution shown in this group. The chromosome changes that have come to characterize each taxon may offer selective advantages in the particular areas occupied, or it may be that these rearrangements play an important role in reproductive isolation. In Petrogale, the taxa with the largest number of chromosome rearrangements are those that are sympatric, or have multiple zones of parapatry, with other members of the genus. Male hybrids from a variety of chromosomal admixtures were found to be sterile, but with those heterozygous for the least complex rearrangements being least affected. As expected, equivalent female hybrids were less severely affected. Chromosomal and genic changes both appear important in these processes.

A hybrid zone comprising staggered chromosomal clines in the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus)

In the vicinity of John o'Groats (Caithness, Scotland) there is a small karyotypic race of the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) characterized by a diploid number of 32 chromosomes, including the metacentrics 4.10, 9.12, 6.13 and 11.14. This race forms a hybrid zone with the standard British race (fully acrocentric chromosomes, 2n = 40). Although hybrid zones normally consist of several (or many) narrow character clines at the same position, this zone is unusual in that the chromosomal clines do not coincide. The cline for arm combination 11.14 is staggered relative to the 6.13 cline and both are separate from the clines for 4.10 and 9.12 (which may or may not coincide). A variety of explanations for the structure of the hybrid zone are discussed. It is possible that this may be a case of 'zonal raciation'.