Goat Meat: Production and Quality Attributes

Goat meat could be a sustainable source of red meat. Its farming requires minimal input, is suitable for free-range farming, and produces a healthier red meat option as it is lean. Although goat meat has advantages for meat production, it still needs to be established as a valuable part of the meat trade market. But, currently, goat meat production is less specialized; there is less intense breed selection for premium meat production, and often the animals are farmed with a multifunctional purpose, such as for their meat, fiber, and milk. The less structured goat meat industry contributes to the inconsistent quality of goat meat. This paper attempts to describe the characteristics of popular goat breeds and indigenous goats as a source of meat and the potential of various goat breeds for meat production. Additionally, this paper presents goat meat's quality and physicochemical and sensory attributes that are relevant to understanding the unique attributes of goat meat. Much work is needed for the goat meat processing industry to develop its potential.

Effects of Dietary Inclusion of Tannin-Rich Sericea Lespedeza Hay on Relationships among Linear Body Measurements, Body Condition Score, Body Mass Indexes, and Performance of Growing Alpine Doelings and Katahdin Ewe Lambs

The objective of this study was to assess the effects of the dietary level of a condensed tannin-rich forage on linear measures, body condition score (BCS), body mass indexes (BMI), and performance and relationships among these variables in growing dairy goats and hair sheep raised for meat. An experiment with a 2 × 3 factorial treatment arrangement was conducted, with two species and three diets. Diets were 25% concentrate and 75% forage, which were alfalfa hay, condensed tannin-containing Sericea lespedeza hay, and a 1:1 mixture of both hay sources. Twenty-four Alpine (ALP) doelings and 24 Katahdin (KAT) ewe lambs were used in the 173-day study, consisting of four measurement periods. Variables included BCS, linear measures, BMI, and performance variables such as average daily gain (ADG) and dry matter intake (DMI, g/day). Linear measures were length from the shoulder point to pin (Pin) and hook (Hook) bones, height at the withers (Wither), circumference from heart girth (Heart), and width at the hook bones (Rump). Different BMI were based on the Wither, Hook, Pin, Heart, and various combinations. Heart, Rump, and all BMI were affected by species, whereas linear measures and BMI based on Wither and the combination of height and length measures were influenced by diet. There were positive (p < 0.05) correlation coefficients (r) between BCS and body weight (BW) and linear measures as well as BMI for both species, and correlations were greater for KAT than for ALP. Body condition score was correlated with BW, ADG, and DMI for KAT (p < 0.05). For ALP, the correlation between BCS and BW (p < 0.015) was much lower than for KAT (0.49 vs. 0.91), and there were only tendencies for relationships between BCS and ADG and DMI (p < 0.10). Body weight and ADG were positively correlated (p < 0.05) with all BMI for both species, and most correlations were greater for KAT than for ALP. Correlations involving BMI based on combinations of two linear measures with BW and ADG were in most instances greater than for BMI calculated from one or three linear measures. For ALP, DMI was related to BMI based on Wither and Pin (r = 0.43), Heart and Hook (r = 0.44), and Heart and Pin (r = 0.61), whereas for KAT, correlations were similar (0.72−0.75) for each of the four BMI based on two linear measures (i.e., Wither and Hook, Wither and Pin, Heart and Hook, and Heart and Pin). Therefore, it appears that each of these four BMI, preferably based on Heart and length, could be appropriate for better livestock management over BCS and in predicting animal performance.

Physiological parameter values for physiologically based pharmacokinetic models in food-producing animals. Part III: Sheep and goat

This report is the third in a series of studies that aimed to compile physiological parameters related to develop physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models for drugs and environmental chemicals in food‐producing animals including swine and cattle (Part I), chickens and turkeys (Part II), and finally sheep and goats (the focus of this manuscript). Literature searches were conducted in multiple databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and ProQuest), with data on relevant parameters including body weight, relative organ weight (% of body weight), cardiac output, relative organ blood flow (% of cardiac output), residual blood volume (% of organ weight), and hematocrit reviewed and statistically summarized. The mean and standard deviation of each parameter are presented in tables. Equations describing the growth curves of sheep and goats are presented in figures. When data are sufficient, parameter values are reported for different ages or production classes of sheep, including fetal sheep, lambs, and market‐age sheep (mature sheep). These data provide a reference database for developing standardized PBPK models to predict drug withdrawal intervals in sheep and goats, and also provide a basis for extrapolating PBPK models from major species such as cattle to minor species such as sheep and goats.

Effects of Feeding Garlic Powder on Growth Performance, Rumen Fermentation, and the Health Status of Lambs Infected by Gastrointestinal Nematodes

Simple Summary

Non-chemical strategies to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) infection are urgently needed to support the sustainable development of the livestock industry. The potential anti-parasitic properties in garlic powder to control sheep GINs was investigated in this study. The key finding of this study was that feeding garlic powder increased growth performance of lambs infected with GINs by decreasing fecal egg counts and improving feed digestion, rumen fermentation, and the health status of lambs.

Abstract

For the study, forty lambs were weighed and assigned into two treatments to determine the effects of feeding garlic powder on growth performance, rumen fermentation, and the health status of lambs infected with gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs). The lambs were fed with a basal diet without or with 50 g/kg garlic powder for 84 d. Data were analyzed by a general linear or mixed model of SAS software and differences were considered statistically significant if p ≤ 0.05. Results showed that garlic powder supplementation increased the lambs’ average daily gain (p = 0.025), digestibility of dry matter (p = 0.019), and crude protein (p = 0.007). No significant changes were observed on the dry matter intake, feed conversion ratio, as well as the apparent digestibility of lipid and fiber. An interactive effect between treatment and feeding day was observed on ruminal pH (p < 0.001) and ammonia nitrogen concentration (p < 0.001). Ruminal pH (p < 0.001) and ammonia nitrogen concentration (p < 0.001) decreased with garlic powder supplementation, while ammonia nitrogen concentration increased (p = 0.001) with the extension of the feeding period. Garlic powder supplementation increased the total volatile fatty acid concentration (p < 0.001) in the rumen fluid, the molar proportion of acetic acid (p = 0.002), propionic acid (p < 0.001), and isovaleric acid (p = 0.049), but it decreased the ratio of acetic acid to propionic acid (p = 0.015). The lambs’ fecal egg count decreased (p < 0.001), but the packed cell volume and body condition scores of lambs increased (p < 0.001) with garlic powder supplementation. In conclusion, feeding garlic powder increased growth performance, feed digestion, rumen fermentation, and the health status of lambs infected with GINs.

Carcass and non-carcass component yields of crossbred Boer and Brazilian semiarid indigenous goats subjected to different feeding levels

The effect of different feeding levels (ad libitum, 25 and 50 % restriction) and genotypes (½ Boer × ½ nondescript breed goats, Canindé, and Moxotó) on carcass quantitative characteristics and non-carcass components (NCC) were evaluated. Forty-five intact male goats were distributed in a 3 × 3 factorial design with five replicates. There was no effect of genotype on carcass weights and yields and retail cuts weights and yields (P > 0.05). Compared to Moxotó, ½ Boer presented better carcass conformation and higher weights (P < 0.01) and yields of viscera from gastrointestinal tract (P < 0.05), and compared to the other genotypes (P < 0.01), ½ Boer presented larger carcass compactness. Carcass weights and yields, retail cuts weights and NCC, and soft tissues yields were higher (P < 0.01) in goats fed ad libitum. The two restriction levels did not differ (P > 0.05) for these variables. There were interactions of genotype and feeding level. At ad libitum feeding, ½ Boer had higher weights of breast and shank, leg, soft tissues, and gastrointestinal viscera compared to the Moxotó (P < 0.05). The crossing of nondescript breed goats with Boer may be a strategy for increasing the efficiency of goat meat production in the Brazilian semiarid. Moreover, in times of feed scarcity, farmers may use higher feed restriction levels to keep animals, since for most of the parameters evaluated, there were no differences between the restriction levels.

Effects of breed and harvest age on feed intake, growth, carcass traits, blood metabolites, and lipogenic gene expression in Boer and Kiko goats

The objectives of this experiment were to determine the effects of 2 different breeds (BR), Boer and Kiko, and 4 post-weaning harvest ages (HA; Days 0, 29, 56, and 85) on growth, carcass traits, blood metabolites, and lipogenic gene expression. Forty-eight goat (Capra hircus) kids (BW = 23.9 ± 1.50 kg; 3 to 4 mo) were used in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments. Goats were stratified by BW within BR and randomly assigned to 4 HA. Kids were born between March 15 and April 7 to purebred does, and were represented by at least 3 purebred sires within each BR. They were fed a grain/hay (80:20) diet once per day. At designated HA, randomly pre-assigned goats (n = 6) from each BR were transported to the Meat Science Lab at Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, and were harvested. There were no interactions (P > 0.10) between BR and HA. Boer tended (P = 0.08) to have greater initial BW, final BW (P = 0.05), and G/F ratio (P = 0.05). Although the 80:20 grain/hay diet was reinforced by adjusting DMI, both BR had similar total DMI, Boer kept that ratio, while Kiko consumed more (P = 0.001) hay (70:30, grain/hay) and had more (P = 0.001) DMI when expressed as g/kg BW. Boer tended to have greater transportation shrink (P = 0.07), HCW (P = 0.08), and cold carcass weights (CCW; P = 0.08), with greater (P = 0.001) carcass fat. No differences (P > 0.10) were observed in carcass shrink, dressing percentage, 12th rib fat thickness, and LM area between the 2 BR. When expressed as percentage empty BW, carcass bone was similar (P = 0.25), whereas muscle percentage (P = 0.02) was greater for Kiko and fat percentage was greater (P = 0.001) for Boer. Fat as a percentage of CCW remained relatively similar (P > 0.10) for both BR for the 2nd and 3rd HA. Differences were more evident (P = 0.01) at the 4th HA. Boer reached targeted harvest weight (29 kg) at the 3rd HA, while fat deposition continued (P = 0.01) during the 4th HA. Breed had no effect (P > 0.10) on meat color (L*, a*, b*) but HA affected (P = 0.001) all color values. Boer had similar 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase mRNA abundance, but was greater (P < 0.03) in acetyl CoA carboxylase compared with Kiko. There was no difference (P = 0.52) in total serum fatty acids (FA, mg/mL) between the 2 BR. As animals aged, their total serum FA increased (P < 0.05) and changed to an undesirable profile. Kiko had a greater (P = 0.02) percentage of muscle and less (P = 0.001) fat in the carcass. We concluded that different BR might need different harvest endpoints and feed input according to consumer acceptability.

Effects of level of concentrate supplementation on growth performance of Arsi-Bale and Boer × Arsi-Bale male goats consuming low-quality grass hay

Eighteen Arsi-Bale (local) and 18 Boer × Arsi-Bale (crossbred) male goats, initially approximately 10 months of age, were used in a 12-week experiment to investigate potential interactions between genotype and nutritional plane in growth performance, carcass and skin characteristics, and mass of non-carcass components. Grass hay (6.7% crude protein and 71.9% neutral detergent fiber) was consumed ad libitum supplemented with 150, 300, or 450 g/day (dry matter; low, moderate, and high, respectively) of a concentrate mixture (50% wheat bran, 49% noug seed cake, and 1% salt). Initial body weight was 20.7 and 14.0 kg for crossbred and local goats, respectively (SE = 0.36). Hay dry matter intake was greater (P < 0.05) for crossbred vs. local goats (461 and 429 g/day) and similar among concentrate levels (438, 444, and 451 g/day for high, moderate, and low, respectively; SE = 4.7). Average daily gain was greater (P < 0.05) for crossbred than for local goats (36.6 and 20.8 g) and differed (P < 0.05) among each level of concentrate (43.7, 29.6, and 12.8 g for high, moderate, and low, respectively). Dressing percentage was similar between genotypes (41.1% and 41.1% live body weight for crossbred and local goats, respectively; SE = 0.59) and greater (P < 0.05) for high vs. low (43.5% vs. 38.7% live body weight). Carcass weight differed (P < 0.05) between genotypes (9.23 and 6.23 kg for crossbred and local goats, respectively) and high and low (8.80 and 6.66 kg, respectively). Carcass concentrations of physically dissectible lean and fat were similar between genotypes and high and low concentrate levels. There were few differences between genotypes or concentrate levels in other carcass characteristics such as color and skin properties. Relative to empty body weight, the mass of most non-carcass tissues and organs did not differ between genotypes. However, the low concentrate-level mass of omental-mesenteric fat was greater (P < 0.05) for local vs. crossbred goats (1.06% vs. 0.54% empty body weight, respectively). In conclusion, growth performance and carcass weight advantages from crossing Boer and Arsi-Bale goats were similar with a low-quality basal grass hay diet regardless of level of supplemental concentrate.

Effects of restricted feed intake on heat energy by different goat breeds

Sixteen Boer goat doelings, 16 Spanish doelings, and 8 Angora doelings and 8 wethers, 283, 316, and 330 d of age initially (SEM = 5.0), respectively, were used to evaluate effects of nutrient restriction on heat energy (HE). During the first and second 10-wk phases, 8 animals of each breed were fed a 50% concentrate pelletized diet at a level adequate for maintenance and moderate energy accretion (CONT). Other animals were fed approximately 50% of these amounts in phase 1 relative to initial BW, followed by the greater level of feeding in phase 2 based on initial or actual BW when greater (REST). Average daily gain was 43, -20, 16, -78, 8, and -48 g in phase 1 (SEM = 5.0) and 26, 44, 50, 65, 27, and 32 g in phase 2 (SEM = 3.5) for Angora-CONT, Angora-REST, Boer-CONT, Boer-REST, Spanish-CONT, and Spanish-REST, respectively. Total HE was greater for CONT vs. REST in both phases (P < 0.001), greater in phase 1 for Angora than for Boer (P < 0.01) and Spanish (P < 0.01), and greatest (P < 0.01) in phase 2 among breeds for Angora [481, 347, 430, 356, 424, and 338 kJ/kg of BW(0.75) per day in phase 1 (SEM = 11.1), and 494, 479, 445, 397, 444, and 406 kJ/kg of BW(0.75) per day in phase 2 (SEM = 11.3) for Angora-CONT, Angora-REST, Boer-CONT, Boer-REST, Spanish-CONT, and Spanish-REST, respectively]. Equations describing the temporal pattern of HE (kJ/kg of BW(0.75) per day), expressed as a percentage of the wk-0 value and corrected for corresponding breed × week CONT means, in phase 1 were 95.8 ± 2.43 - (8.18 ± 1.144 × week) + (0.655 ± 0.1098 × week(2)) for Angora (R(2) = 0.58), 95.3 ± 2.63 - (4.34 ± 1.237 × wk) + (0.271 ± 0.1187 × wk(2)) for Boer (R(2) = 0.41), and 97.4 ± 2.21 - (4.69 ± 1.068 × wk) + (0.282 ± 0.1021 × wk(2)) for Spanish (R(2) = 0.53). Phase 2 equations were 78.9 ± 2.22 + (8.74 ± 1.036 × wk) - (0.608 ± 0.0095 × wk(2)) for Angora (R(2) = 0.60), 77.5 ± 2.10 + (3.30 ± 0.978 × wk) - (0.153 ± 0.0942 × wk(2)) for Boer (R(2) = 0.39), and 80.6 ± 2.50 + (4.50 ± 1.165 × wk) - (0.208 ± 0.1122 × wk(2)) for Spanish (R(2) = 0.43). These equations indicate that changes in HE in response to nutrient restriction and realimentation were more rapid and of greater magnitude in Angora vs. Boer and Spanish. The temporal pattern of decline in HE by Boer and Spanish during restriction was similar, but the subsequent rise with realimentation was slower and smaller for Boer. In conclusion, most appropriate methods of predicting change in the maintenance energy requirement during and after periods of limited feed intake may differ among breeds of goats.

Effects of level of feeding on energy utilization by Angora goats

Twelve mature Angora does were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square to determine effects of feeding level on energy utilization. Fiber growth and change in tissue (nonfiber) mass were determined in the first 4 wk of 6-wk periods, preceded by 14 or 18 d of adaptation. Determination of ME intake and gas exchange measures occurred in wk 4, followed by feeding near maintenance, then fasting in wk 5 and 6 to determine the ME requirement for maintenance (ME(m)). A 60% concentrate diet was fed at levels to approximate 100, 125, and 150% of assumed ME(m) [low, medium (med), and high, respectively]. Digestibilities and diet ME/GE were not affected by treatment with different amounts of feed offered and subsequent intake near ME(m). Heat energy during fasting (261, 241, and 259 kJ/kg of BW(0.75); SEM = 8.7) and efficiency of ME used for maintenance (71.6, 69.6, and 69.2%; SEM = 2.29) were similar among treatments, although ME(m) differed (P < 0.04) between med and high (365, 344, and 377 kJ/kg of BW(0.75) for low, med, and high, respectively; SEM = 10.3). Tissue gain was less (P < 0.01) for low than for the mean of med and high (MH; -0.6, 23.7, and 29.8 g/d), although clean fiber growth only tended (P < 0.09) to differ between low and MH (5.60, 6.57, and 7.36 g/d for low, med, and high, respectively; SEM = 0.621). Intake of ME was greater (P < 0.01) for MH than for low (6.87, 8.22, and 8.41 MJ/d for low, med, and high, respectively). Total heat energy was less (P < 0.02) for low vs. MH and tended (P < 0.07) to be greater for high than for med (6.03, 6.31, and 6.77 MJ/d); mobilized tissue energy was low but greater (P < 0.02) for low vs. MH (0.16, 0.01, and 0.04 MJ/d for low, med, and high, respectively). Efficiency of ME use for fiber growth was similar among treatments (17.2, 16.3, and 17.7% for low, med, and high, respectively; SEM = 1.61). In conclusion, efficiency of ME use for fiber growth was similar to the NRC recommendation regardless of feeding level, although ME(m) was decreased perhaps because of experimental conditions used. Energy appeared partitioned to fiber growth, but preferential usage was not complete possibly because energy metabolism for tissue accretion reached a plateau with the greatest feeding level.