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Agúndez JAG, García-Martín E, Alonso-Navarro H, Jiménez-Jiménez FJ. Anti-Parkinson's disease drugs and pharmacogenetic considerations. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:859-74. [PMID: 23565891 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.789018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The development of pharmacogenetic-based clinical practice guidelines for the use of anti-Parkinson's disease drugs requires, as a pre-requisite, the identification and validation of genetic biomarkers. These biomarkers are then used as surrogate endpoints. This review analyzes potential genetic biomarkers which can be used to improve anti-Parkinson's disease therapy. AREAS COVERED The authors present an overview of current knowledge of pharmacogenetic implications of anti-Parkinson's disease drugs, including genes coding for the corresponding drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug targets. The gene/drug pairings with the strongest potential for pharmacogenetic recommendations include: CYP2C19/benztropine, COMT/levodopa and entacapone, CYP2B6/selegiline, UGT1A/entacapone, DRD2/ropinirole, pramipexole and cabergoline, and DRD3/ropinirole and pramipexole. Evidence supporting the effect of substrates, inhibitor or inducers for drug specific metabolizing enzymes in anti-Parkinson's disease drug response includes CYP1A2 in the response to ropinirole and rasagiline, and CYP3A4 in the response to bromocriptine, lisuride, pergolide and cabergoline. The authors present and discuss the current information on gene variations according to the 1000 genomes catalog and other databases with regards to anti-Parkinson's disease drugs. They also review and discuss the clinical implications of these variations. EXPERT OPINION The goal of pharmacogenomic testing for anti-Parkinson's disease drugs should be conservative and aimed at selecting determined drugs for determined patients. However, much additional research is still needed to obtain reliable pre-prescription tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A G Agúndez
- University of Extremadura, Department of Pharmacology, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, E-10071, Cáceres, Spain.
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Penner NA, Ho G, Bercovici A, Chowdhury SK, Alton KB. Identification of Two Novel Metabolites of SCH 486757, a Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ Peptide Receptor Agonist, in Humans. Drug Metab Dispos 2010; 38:2067-74. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.110.032516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Othman AA, Newman AH, Eddington ND. The novel N-substituted benztropine analog GA2-50 possesses pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles favorable for a candidate substitute medication for cocaine abuse. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:5453-70. [PMID: 18425847 PMCID: PMC2673089 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
GA2-50 is a novel N-substituted benztropine analog with improved potency and selectivity for the dopamine transporter. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of GA2-50 were characterized as a part of its preclinical evaluation as a substitute medication for cocaine abuse. In vitro transport and metabolism studies as well as pharmacokinetic studies in rats were conducted. Effect of GA2-50 on the extracelluar nucleus accumbens (NAc) dopamine levels and on cocaine's induced dopamine elevation was evaluated using intracerebral microdialysis. GA2-50 showed high transcellular permeability despite being a P-glycoprotein substrate. GA2-50 was a substrate of human CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2E1, rat CYP2C11, CYP2D1, CYP3A1, and CYP1A2; with low intrinsic clearance values. In vivo, GA2-50 showed high brain uptake (R(i) approximately 10), large volume of distribution (V(ss) = 37 L/kg), and long elimination half-life (t((1/2)) = 19 h). GA2-50 resulted in 1.6- and 2.7-fold dopamine elevation at the 5 and 10 mg/kg i.v. doses. Dopamine elevation induced by GA2-50 was significantly reduced, slower and longer lasting than previously observed for cocaine. GA2-50 had no significant effect on cocaine's induced dopamine elevation upon simultaneous administration. Results from the present study indicate that GA2-50 possesses several attributes sought after for a substitute medication for cocaine abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Othman
- Pharmacokinetics-Biopharmaceutics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland Baltimore, 20 North Pine Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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Metz TO, Zhang Q, Page JS, Shen Y, Callister SJ, Jacobs JM, Smith RD. The future of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in metabolic profiling and metabolomic studies for biomarker discovery. Biomark Med 2007; 1:159-185. [PMID: 19177179 DOI: 10.2217/17520363.1.1.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The future utility of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) in metabolic profiling and metabolomic studies for biomarker discover will be discussed, beginning with a brief description of the evolution of metabolomics and the utilization of the three most popular analytical platforms in such studies: NMR, GC-MS, and LC-MS. Emphasis is placed on recent developments in high-efficiency LC separations, sensitive electrospray ionization approaches, and the benefits to incorporating both in LC-MS-based approaches. The advantages and disadvantages of various quantitative approaches are reviewed, followed by the current LC-MS-based tools available for candidate biomarker characterization and identification. Finally, a brief prediction on the future path of LC-MS-based methods in metabolic profiling and metabolomic studies is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas O Metz
- Biological Science Division and Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
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Othman AA, Syed SA, Newman AH, Eddington ND. Transport, Metabolism, and in Vivo Population Pharmacokinetics of the Chloro Benztropine Analogs, a Class of Compounds Extensively Evaluated in Animal Models of Drug Abuse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 320:344-53. [PMID: 17003230 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.106.111245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, extensive behavioral research has been conducted on the benztropine (BZT) analogs with the goal of developing successful therapeutics for cocaine abuse. The present study was conducted to characterize the contribution of dispositional factors in mediating the behavioral differences among the chloro BZT analogs and to identify cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in their metabolism. Bidirectional transport and efflux studies of four of the chloro BZT analogs were conducted. Screening with a panel of human and rat Supersomes was performed for 4',4''-diCl BZT. In addition, pharmacokinetic and brain distribution studies for 4'-Cl and 4',4''-diCl BZT in Sprague-Dawley rats were conducted. The permeability of the chloro analogs ranged from 8.26 to 32.23 and from 1.37 to 21.65 x 10(-6) cm/s, whereas the efflux ratios ranged from 2.1 to 6.9 and from 3.3 to 28.4 across Madin-Darby canine kidney-multidrug resistance 1 (MDCK-MDR1) and Caco-2 monolayers, respectively. The P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor verapamil reduced the efflux ratios and enhanced the absorptive transport of the chloro BZT analogs. 4',4''-diCl BZT was a substrate of human CYP2D6 and 2C19 and rat 2C11 and 3A1. The brain uptake for 4'-Cl and 4',4''-diCl BZT was comparable and higher than previously reported for cocaine (brain-to-plasma partition coefficient = 4.6-4.7 versus 2.1 for cocaine). The rank order for t(1/2) was 4',4''-diCl BZT >> 4'-Cl BZT > cocaine and for steady-state volume of distribution was 4'-Cl BZT > 4',4''-diCl BZT >> cocaine. In conclusion, the chloro analogs differ significantly in their clearance and duration of action, which correlates to their behavioral profiles and abuse liability. Furthermore, these results suggest that the distinctive behavioral profile of these analogs is not due to limited brain exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Othman
- Pharmacokinetics-Biopharmaceutics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland Baltimore, 20 Penn St., HSF-2, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Xie G, Gunn RN, Dagher A, Daloze T, Plourde G, Backman SB, Diksic M, Fiset P. PET quantification of muscarinic cholinergic receptors with [N-11C-methyl]-benztropine and application to studies of propofol-induced unconsciousness in healthy human volunteers. Synapse 2004; 51:91-101. [PMID: 14618676 DOI: 10.1002/syn.10292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This work evaluated kinetic analysis methods for estimation of the receptor availability of the muscarinic receptor using dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) studies with [N-(11)C-methyl]-benztropine. The study also investigated the effect of propofol on central muscarinic receptor availability during general anesthesia. Six volunteers were scanned three times, once for baseline while awake, once during unconsciousness, and once after recovery to conscious level. An irreversible two-tissue compartment model was used to estimate the [N-(11)C-methyl]-benztropine specific binding rate constant k(3), a measure of muscarinic receptor availability. Two different estimation methods were used: 1) optimization with positivity constraints on all the parameters; 2) optimization with additional constraints determined from a one-tissue compartment fit to the cerebellum. In regions with low to middle muscarinic receptor density, the k(3) values from method (2) had lower standard errors than that for method (1) and gave a higher correlation with the density of muscarinic receptors measured in human tissue by in vitro studies (r(2) of 0.98 for Method 2 and r(2) of 0.72 for Method 1). But the k(3) values determined by Method 2 had higher errors for regions with high muscarinic receptor density compared to Method 1. For both methods the mean k(3) values during unconsciousness were generally lower than those during awake for most regions evaluated. Therefore, the method with additional constraints derived from the cerebellum (Method 2) was deemed superior for regions with low to middle muscarinic receptor density, while the method with positivity constraint is the better choice in the regions with high muscarinic receptor density. Our results also suggest the existence of propofol-related reductions in muscarinic receptor availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoming Xie
- Department of Anesthesiology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A2, Canada
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Raje S, Cao J, Newman AH, Gao H, Eddington ND. Evaluation of the blood-brain barrier transport, population pharmacokinetics, and brain distribution of benztropine analogs and cocaine using in vitro and in vivo techniques. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 307:801-8. [PMID: 12966155 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.103.053504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The N-substituted 3alpha-[bis(4'-fluorophenyl)methoxy]tropanes (AHN 2-003, AHN 1-055, AHN 2-005, and JHW 007) bind with high affinity to the dopamine transporter and inhibit dopamine uptake more potently than cocaine, but they demonstrate behavioral profiles in animal models of psychostimulant abuse that are unlike that of cocaine. The objective of this study was to characterize the in vitro permeability, brain distribution, and pharmacokinetics of the benztropine (BZT) analogs. Transport studies of cocaine and the BZT analogs (10-4 M) were conducted across bovine brain microvessel endothelial cells. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (approximately 300 g) were administered BZT analogs (10 mg/kg) or cocaine (5 mg/kg) via the tail vein. Blood and brain samples were collected over 36 h and assayed using UV-high-performance liquid chromatography. Transport of both AHN 1-055 (2.15 x 10-4 cm/s) and JHW 007 (2.83 x 10-4 cm/s) was higher (p < 0.05) than that of cocaine (1.63 x 10-4 cm/s). The volume of distribution (12.3-30.5 l/kg) of the analogs was significantly higher than cocaine (0.9 l/kg). The BZT analogs displayed a > or =8-fold higher elimination half-life (4.12-16.49 h) compared with cocaine (0.49 h). The brain-to-plasma partition coefficients were at least two-fold higher for the BZTs versus cocaine, except for AHN 2-003. The BZT analogs are highly permeable across the blood-brain barrier and possess a pharmacokinetic profile different from that of cocaine. These characteristics, in addition to their distinctive behavioral profiles, suggest that the BZT analogs may be promising candidates for the treatment of cocaine abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeeta Raje
- Pharmacokinetics Biopharmaceutics Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Deleu D, Northway MG, Hanssens Y. Clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 2002; 41:261-309. [PMID: 11978145 DOI: 10.2165/00003088-200241040-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Current research in Parkinson's disease (PD) focuses on symptomatic therapy and neuroprotective interventions. Drugs that have been used for symptomatic therapy are levodopa, usually combined with a peripheral decarboxylase inhibitor, synthetic dopamine receptor agonists, centrally-acting antimuscarinic drugs, amantadine, monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) inhibitors and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitors. Drugs for which there is at least some evidence for neuroprotective effect are certain dopamine agonists, amantadine and MAO-B inhibitors (selegiline). Levodopa remains the most effective drug for the treatment of PD. Several factors contribute to the complex clinical pharmacokinetics of levodopa: erratic absorption, short half-life, peripheral O-methylation and facilitated transport across the blood-brain barrier. In patients with response fluctuations to levodopa, the concentration-effect curve becomes steeper and shifts to the right compared with patients with stable response. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling can affect decisions regarding therapeutic strategies. The dopamine agonists include ergot derivatives (bromocriptine, pergolide, lisuride and cabergoline), non-ergoline derivatives (pramipexole, ropinirole and piribedil) and apomorphine. Most dopamine agonists have their specific pharmacological profile. They are used in monotherapy and as an adjunct to levodopa in early and advanced PD. Few pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data are available regarding centrally acting antimuscarinic drugs. They are characterised by rapid absorption after oral intake, large volume of distribution and low clearance relative to hepatic blood flow, with extensive metabolism. The mechanism of action of amantadine remains elusive. It is well absorbed and widely distributed. Since elimination is primarily by renal clearance, accumulation of the drug can occur in patients with renal dysfunction and dosage reduction must be envisaged. The COMT inhibitors entacapone and tolcapone dose-dependently inhibit the formation of the major metabolite of levodopa, 3-O-methyldopa, and improve the bioavailability and reduce the clearance of levodopa without significantly affecting its absorption. They are useful adjuncts to levodopa in patients with end-of-dose fluctuations. The MAO-B inhibitor selegiline may have a dual effect: reducing the catabolism of dopamine and limiting the formation of neurotoxic free radicals. The pharmacokinetics of selegiline are highly variable; it has low bioavailability and large volume of distribution. The oral clearance is many-fold higher than the hepatic blood flow and the drug is extensively metabolised into several metabolites, some of them being active. Despite the introduction of several new drugs to the antiparkinsonian armamentarium, no single best treatment exists for an individual patient with PD. Particularly in the advanced stage of the disease, treatment should be individually tailored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Deleu
- College of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 35, Al Khod, Sultanate of Oman.
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Maurer HH. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in forensic and clinical toxicology. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 1998; 713:3-25. [PMID: 9700550 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(97)00514-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric (LC-MS) procedures for the identification and/or quantification of drugs of abuse, therapeutic drugs, poisons and/or their metabolites in biosamples (whole blood, plasma, serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, vitreous humor, liver or hair) of humans or animals (cattle, dog, horse, mouse, pig or rat). Papers published from 1995 to early 1997, which are relevant to clinical toxicology, forensic toxicology, doping control or drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics, were taken into consideration. They cover the following analytes: amphetamines, cocaine, lysergide (LSD), opiates, anabolics, antihypertensives, benzodiazepines, cardiac glycosides, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, neuroleptics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), opioids, quaternary amines, xanthins, biogenic poisons such as aconitines, aflatoxins, amanitins and nicotine, and pesticides. LC-MS interface types, mass spectral detection modes, sample preparation procedures and chromatographic systems applied in the reviewed papers are discussed. Basic information about the biosample assayed, work-up, LC column, mobile phase, interface type, mass spectral detection mode, and validation data of each procedure is summarized in tables. Examples of typical LC-MS applications are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H Maurer
- Department of Toxicology, University of Saarland, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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