Tallow, Rendered Animal Fat, and Its Biocompatibility With Skin: A Scoping Review

There is a surge in the skincare industry marketing the use of natural ingredients as efficacious agents. Although this has been popular in the Eastern hemisphere for a while, Western countries are starting to put more emphasis on naturally derived products. This paper chose to analyze the current research available on tallow, which is a solid fat derived from animals. Tallow has long been used as a neutral cooking fat, ingredient in soaps, biofuel product, and now ingredient in skincare products. The purpose of this scoping review was to look at the current research pertaining to the therapeutic benefits of tallow on the skin. Using the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, a scoping review was conducted using two databases: EMBASE and PubMed as sources of evidence. The searches for studies were conducted using the following key terms: (tallow) AND (skin or dermatology or dermatitis or emulsion or cosmetics or eczema). Papers were excluded if they were not in English, if they did not mention the effects of tallow on the skin, and if they did not use tallow rendered from an animal. Date ranges and geographical locations for articles were not part of our inclusion or exclusion criteria. We focused on the following five research questions: Does the composition of tallow make it better suitable for use on skin? What is the benefit of using tallow on skin? Does tallow have therapeutic properties for skin conditions? What side effects does tallow have on the skin? Is tallow reef-safe? While there is much evidence supporting the use of tallow as an ingredient in animal feed, cooking, soaps, and biofuels, there are significant research gaps in how it can be used on human skin. Our search on PubMed and EMBASE resulted in a total of 147 studies being screened with 19 fitting our specific criteria. Of the 19 studies, there were comparative studies, basic science studies, and animal studies. After reviewing the studies to answer the objectives in this paper, we were able to find information that supported the first three objectives; however, more research is still needed. Specifically, more research is needed that is geared towards tallow as a cosmetic product in humans. The fourth objective, which was to answer the side effects of topical tallow, had the most discrepancies between the sources. The fifth objective also found supporting information; however, only two sources were found. Overall, there needs to be more research with controlled variables on the side effects of topical tallow. Different research designs that could be explored include case studies, randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional studies, and qualitative studies.

Elucidation of the mechanism of NEFA-induced PERK-eIF2α signaling pathway regulation of lipid metabolism in bovine hepatocytes

During the periparturient transition period, negative energy balance (NEB) characterized by high concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) may cause fatty liver and ketosis in dairy cows. Previous studies have shown that the protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) branch of the endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) response plays an important role in lipid metabolism in hepatocytes. This study, therefore, investigated the role of the PERK-branch in NEFA-induced fatty liver. Different concentrations of NEFA or GSK2656157 (a novel catalytic inhibitor of PERK) were used to treat hepatocytes isolated from calves. The NEFA treatment significantly increased the triacylglycerol (TG) content, the phosphorylation level of PERK and eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), and the abundance of glucose-regulated protein 78 (Grp78), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), fatty acid synthase (FASN), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα), carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A), apolipoprotein B (APOB), and the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). Compared with the 1.2 mM NEFA group, inhibition of PERK activity further increased the TG content in hepatocytes, the very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) content in the supernatant and the protein abundance of APOB while reducing the expression and nuclear levels of SREBP-1c and PPARα, as well as the expression of CPT1A and CPT2. In conclusion, the results showed that the NEFA-induced PERK-eIF2α signaling pathway promotes lipid synthesis, lipid oxidation, but inhibits the assembly and secretion of VLDL. Therefore, during the transition period, the activation of the PERK-eIF2α signaling pathway in the liver of dairy cows could defeat the acid-induced lipotoxicity and provide energy to alleviate NEB.

The Capacity of Holstein-Friesian and Simmental Cows to Correct a Negative Energy Balance in Relation to Their Performance Parameters, Course of Lactation, and Selected Milk Components

A significant factor in improving the performance of dairy cows is their physiological ability to correct a negative energy balance (NEB). This study, using Simmental (SIM) and Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows, aimed to assess changes in NEB (non-esterified fatty acid; body condition score; and C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1) and its effect on the metabolic efficiency of the liver (β-hydroxybutyrate and urea). The effects of NEB on daily yield, production at peak lactation and its duration, and changes in selected milk components were assessed during complete lactation. Up to peak lactation, the loss of the body condition score was similar in both breeds. Subsequently, SIM cows more efficiently restored their BCS. HF cows reached peak lactation faster and with a higher milk yield, but they were less able to correct NEB. During lactation, their non-esterified fatty acid, β-hydroxybutyrate, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and urea levels were persistently higher, which may indicate less efficient liver function during NEB. The dynamics of NEB were linked to levels of leptin, which has anorectic effects. Its content was usually higher in HF cows and during intensive lactogenesis. An effective response to NEB may be exploited to improve the production and nutritional properties of milk. In the long term, it may extend dairy cows' productive life and increase lifetime yield.

Effects of beta-1,3-glucan supplementation on concentrations of serum metabolites in transition Holstein cows

Objectives of this study were to evaluate the alleviating effects of a commercial beta-1,3-glucan product (Aleta, containing 50% beta-1,3-glucan, Kemin Industries) on metabolic stress in transition Holstein cows as reflected by circulating metabolites and enzymes. Fifty-four multiparous Holstein cows were randomly allocated to three groups with 18 cows each. Cows in each group received a commercial basal diet or the basal diet supplemented with Aleta calculated to supply 5 or 10 g of Aleta per cow per day. Blood samples were collected at day -21, 1, and 21 relative to calving for determination of serum triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), glucose, insulin, β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA). Supplementation with Aleta markedly elevated serum concentrations of TG, TC, HDLC, LDL-C and VLDL, implying its positive effect on lipid metabolism in transition dairy cows. Aleta treatment significantly decreased the serum concentrations of NEFA and BHBA, but markedly elevated the serum concentrations of glucose and insulin. Also, Aleta treatment significantly elevated the dry matter intake and milk production in postpartum cows, indicating the alleviating effect of Aleta on negative energy balance in transition cows. Moreover, Aleta treatment significantly reduced the serum activities of AST, ALT and GGT, indicating its hepatoprotective effect on transition cows. These results suggest that Aleta supplementation may help to improve fat metabolism disorder initiated by negative energy balance in transition dairy cows.

Metabolic status is associated with the recovery of milk somatic cell count and milk secretion after lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis in dairy cows

Infections of the mammary gland in dairy cows are commonly accompanied by reduced milk production and feed intake and poor milk quality. The metabolic status of early-lactating cows is known to affect immune response to pathogens and imposed immune challenges. We investigated the extent to which metabolic status before an intramammary lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge (LPS-CH) is associated with immune response, milk production, and feed intake and the recovery thereof. In 15 Holstein cows, weekly blood sampling and daily recording of dry matter intake, milk yield, milk composition, and body weight (to calculate energy balance) was started immediately after parturition. In wk 4 after parturition, cows underwent an intramammary LPS-CH (50 μg of LPS into 1 quarter). Blood and milk samples were taken in parallel at 30- and 60-min intervals, respectively, until 10 h after the LPS application. Plasma concentrations of glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), cortisol, and insulin were analyzed. In milk, serum albumin, IgG concentration, somatic cell count (SCC), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity were determined. Dry matter intake and milk yield were recorded for an additional 6 d. Milk of the LPS-treated quarter was sampled at every milking for 8 d after the challenge. Based on plasma glucose concentrations in wk 1 to 4 after parturition before the LPS-CH, cows were retrospectively grouped into a high-glucose group (HG; 3.34-3.93 mmol/L, n = 7) and a low-glucose group (LG; 2.87-3.31 mmol/L, n = 8). Data were evaluated using mixed models with time, group, and time × group interaction as fixed effects and cow as repeated subject. Glucose was lower and BHB was higher in LG compared with HG before LPS-CH, whereas dry matter intake, energy balance, and SCC did not differ. During LPS-CH, SCC and LDH increased similarly in HG and LG, body temperature increased less in HG, and BHB and nonesterified fatty acids were higher in LG compared with HG. Dry matter intake declined in both groups during the day of the LPS-CH but recovered to prechallenge values faster in HG. Milk yield recovered within 2 d after the LPS-CH with no differences in morning milkings, whereas evening milk yield increased faster in HG. During 8 d after LPS-CH, SCC, LDH, IgG, and serum albumin in milk were lower in HG compared with LG. In conclusion, the level of circulating glucose and BHB concentrations in cows was associated with metabolic responses during an LPS-CH as well as the recovery of udder health and performance thereafter.

Molecular mechanisms of lipid metabolism disorder in livers of ewes with pregnancy toxemia

Pathogenesis of pregnancy toxemia (PT) is believed to be associated with the disruption of lipid metabolism. The present study aimed to explore the underlying mechanisms of lipid metabolism disorder in the livers of ewes with PT. In total, 10 pregnant ewes were fed normally (control group) whereas another 10 were subjected to 70% level feed restriction for 15 days to establish a pathological model of PT. Results showed that, as compared with the controls, the levels of blood β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) and cholesterol were greater (P<0.05) and blood glucose level was lower (P<0.05) in PT ewes. The contents of NEFAs, BHBA, cholesterol and triglyceride were higher (P<0.05) and glycerol content was lower (P<0.05) in hepatic tissues of PT ewes than those of the controls. For ewes with PT, excessive fat vacuoles were observed in liver sections stained with hematoxylin-eosin; furthermore, inner structures of hepatocytes including nuclei, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum were damaged seriously according to the results of transmission electron microscope. Real-time PCR data showed that compared with the controls, the expression of hepatic genes involved in fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and triglyceride synthesis (TGS) was enhanced (P<0.05) whereas that related to acetyl-CoA metabolism (ACM) was repressed (P<0.05) in PT ewes. Generally, our results showed that negative energy balance altered the expression of genes involved in FAO, ACM and TGS, further caused lipid metabolism disorder in livers, resulting in PT of ewes. Our findings may provide the molecular basis for novel therapeutic strategies against this systemic metabolic disease in sheep.

Technical note: An improved tool to insert lines for abomasal infusion in rumen cannulated cattle

An improved tool was tested that facilitates the insertion of abomasal infusion lines in ruminally cannulated cattle for postruminal infusion studies. The insertion device was made from a 68 × 25 mm section of 20-mm i.d. stainless steel device with a weight of 125 g. The general procedure to place the tool is to pass the insertion device with the infusion line through the rumen cannula, through the sulcus omasi (reticulo-omasal orifice), and finally into the abomasum. Once inside the omasum, the insertion device is placed inside the abomasum by gently shifting the infusion line from the flexible polyvinyl chloride tubing fitted to the insertion device. The insertion device places itself by self-moving down through the abomasal orifice into the abomasum by means of its own weight. After device placement, its position can be verified by palpating through the wall of the rumen. This way, an infusion line can easily be inserted into the abomasum by any person without introducing the hand into the omasum, avoiding possible injuries to the animal and tool being expulsed of its desired position.

Dietary fat supplementation and the consequences for oocyte and embryo quality: hype or significant benefit for dairy cow reproduction?

In many countries, fat supplementation in the diet has become common in the dairy industry. There are several ideas as to how dietary fat could influence reproductive performance. Saturated fatty acids, such as palm oil, can increase milk yield but may aggravate negative energy balance and thus may impair fertility when fed during the first week post-partum. However, priming the lipid oxidation in the liver by feeding saturated fats during the dry period has recently been shown to be a potentially promising strategy to mitigate fat mobilization and liver accumulation post-partum. Furthermore, polyunsaturated fats (omega-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids) are fed to reduce the 'de novo' fat synthesis in the udder and thus the milk fat content, which may be of modest benefit for overall energy balance. Furthermore, omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are reported to alter follicular growth, steroid synthesis and prostaglandin metabolism in the ovary and endometrium, respectively. Omega-6 fatty acids are believed to have pro-inflammatory and thus PGF2α-stimulating properties rendering them extra value as 'nutraceutical' early post-partum, while omega-3 fatty acids can weaken this inflammatory potency, leading to a higher chance of survival of the embryo when supplemented during the periconceptual period. Unfortunately, research results rarely provide a consensus in this perspective. The consequences of these fat-feeding strategies on oocyte and embryo quality remain an intriguing issue for debate. Fat feeding may alter the microenvironment of the growing and maturing oocyte of the early and older embryo and thus may affect reproductive outcome. We recently reported that dietary-induced hyperlipidaemic conditions can be harmful for embryo development and metabolism. However, to date, research results remain somewhat conflicting most probably due to differences in fat sources used, in diet and duration of supplementation and in experimental set-up in general.