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Bonomo R, Bonomo G, Rubiu E, Iess G, Cammarata G, Innocenti N, Restelli F, Falco J, Porto E, Amato A, Zekaj E, Levi V. Integrative approaches in spinal cord stimulation: Neuropathic pain management and motor recovery in spinal cord injury. A narrative review. BRAIN & SPINE 2024; 4:102781. [PMID: 38601775 PMCID: PMC11004705 DOI: 10.1016/j.bas.2024.102781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Spinal cord stimulation is a widespread treatment of chronic neuropathic pain from different conditions. Several novel and improving technologies have been recently developed to increase the effect of neuromodulation in patients refractory to pharmacological therapy. Research question To explore spinal cord stimulation's mechanisms of action, indications, and management. Material and methods The paper initially explores the mechanism of action of this procedure based on the generation of an electric field between electrodes placed on the posterior dural surface of the spinal cord probably interfering with the transmission of pain stimuli to the brain. Subsequently, the most consolidated criteria for selecting patients for surgery, which constitute a major issue of debate, were defined. Thereafter, the fundamental patterns of stimulation were summarized by exploring the advantages and side effects. Lastly, the most common side effects and the related management were discussed. Results Proper selection of the patient is of paramount importance to achieve the best results from this specific neuromodulation treatment. Regarding the different types of stimulation patterns, no definite evidence-based guidelines exist on the most appropriate approach in relation to the specific type of neuropathic pain. Both burst stimulation and high-frequency stimulation are innovative techniques that reduce the risk of paresthesias compared with conventional stimulation. Discussion and conclusion Novel protocols of stimulation (burst stimulation and high frequency stimulation) may improve the trade-off between therapeutic benefits and potential side effects. Likewise, decreasing the rates of hardware-related complications will be also useful to increase the application of neuromodulation in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Bonomo
- Department of Neurology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
- School of Medicine and Surgery, Kore University of Enna, Enna, Italy
| | - Giulio Bonomo
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Policlinico “G. Rodolico-S. Marco” University Hospital, Catania, Italy
| | - Emanuele Rubiu
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Iess
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Giacomo Cammarata
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Policlinico “G. Rodolico-S. Marco” University Hospital, Catania, Italy
| | - Niccolò Innocenti
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Restelli
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Jacopo Falco
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Edoardo Porto
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessia Amato
- Department of Child Neuropsychiatry, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Edvin Zekaj
- Department of Neurosurgery, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Levi
- Functional Neurosurgery Unit, Department of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
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Sola RG, Pulido P. Neurosurgical Treatment of Pain. Brain Sci 2022; 12:1584. [PMID: 36421909 PMCID: PMC9688870 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12111584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this review is to draw attention to neurosurgical approaches for treating chronic and opioid-resistant pain. In a first chapter, an up-to-date overview of the main pathophysiological mechanisms of pain has been carried out, with special emphasis on the details in which the surgical treatment is based. In a second part, the principal indications and results of different surgical approaches are reviewed. Cordotomy, Myelotomy, DREZ lesions, Trigeminal Nucleotomy, Mesencephalotomy, and Cingulotomy are revisited. Ablative procedures have a limited role in the management of chronic non-cancer pain, but they continues to help patients with refractory cancer-related pain. Another ablation lesion has been named and excluded, due to lack of current relevance. Peripheral Nerve, Spine Cord, and the principal possibilities of Deep Brain and Motor Cortex Stimulation are also revisited. Regarding electrical neuromodulation, patient selection remains a challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael G. Sola
- Innovation in Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Paloma Pulido
- Department of Surgery, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Graham RD, Sankarasubramanian V, Lempka SF. Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation for Chronic Pain: Hypothesized Mechanisms of Action. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2022; 23:196-211. [PMID: 34425252 PMCID: PMC8943693 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2021.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRGS) is a neuromodulation therapy for chronic pain that is refractory to conventional medical management. Currently, the mechanisms of action of DRGS-induced pain relief are unknown, precluding both our understanding of why DRGS fails to provide pain relief to some patients and the design of neurostimulation technologies that directly target these mechanisms to maximize pain relief in all patients. Due to the heterogeneity of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), the analgesic mechanisms could be attributed to the modulation of one or many cell types within the DRG and the numerous brain regions that process sensory information. Here, we summarize the leading hypotheses of the mechanisms of DRGS-induced analgesia, and propose areas of future study that will be vital to improving the clinical implementation of DRGS. PERSPECTIVE: This article synthesizes the evidence supporting the current hypotheses of the mechanisms of action of DRGS for chronic pain and suggests avenues for future interdisciplinary research which will be critical to fully elucidate the analgesic mechanisms of the therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D. Graham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Vishwanath Sankarasubramanian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Scott F. Lempka
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States,Corresponding author: Scott F. Lempka, PhD, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2800 Plymouth Road, NCRC 14-184, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2800,
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4
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Aryal V, Poudel S, Zulfiqar F, Shrestha T, Singh A, Shah SA, Soomro U, Choudhari J, Quinonez J, Ruxmohan S, Amra A, Albert T, Kemmerlin J, Stein J. Updates on the Role of Spinal Cord Stimulation in the Management of Non-Surgical Chronic Lower Back Pain. Cureus 2021; 13:e18928. [PMID: 34812312 PMCID: PMC8603867 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.18928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown that spinal cord stimulation (SCS) therapy is effective in the management of chronic low back pain. It plays a role by minimizing the intensity of chronic pain, improving the quality of life index, reducing the intake of narcotic analgesics, and increasing the functional improvement in the working environment. However, spinal cord stimulation therapy is not universal because of the complications in the procedure itself, the invasive nature of the treatment, and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, the proper selection of the patients is necessary to get the maximum benefit from the treatment. The study's main objective is to determine the role of spinal cord stimulation in treating non-surgical patients with chronic low back pain. The article will review the mechanism, outcomes, efficacy, predisposing factors in the success and failure of the treatment and indications, contraindications, and selection of patients undergoing spinal cord stimulation therapy. A manual search of the literature was done using databases like Google Scholar and PubMed using the keywords: spinal cord, stimulation, chronic, and low back pain. A total of 37 articles were included in the study after considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Spinal cord stimulation therapy effectively treats refractory lower back pain, considering the technology and mechanism of action. The authors conclude that spinal cord stimulation therapy can be used to manage chronic low back pain, other neuropathic pain, and ischemic pain when other standard treatment methods have failed and the pain persisted for more than six months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinayak Aryal
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA.,Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Nepal Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lalitpur, NPL
| | - Sujan Poudel
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Fizza Zulfiqar
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Thakur Shrestha
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Annie Singh
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Shahtaj A Shah
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Umar Soomro
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Jinal Choudhari
- Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Jonathan Quinonez
- Department of Neurology/Osteopathic Neuromuscular Medicine, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Samir Ruxmohan
- Department of Neurology, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Amean Amra
- Osteopathic Neuromuscular Medicine/Family Medicine, Larkin Community Hospital Palm Springs Campus, Hialeah, USA
| | - Trevine Albert
- Division of Interventional Pain, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
| | - Jesse Kemmerlin
- Osteopathic Neuromuscular Medicine/Family Medicine, Larkin Community Hospital Palm Springs Campus, Hialeah, USA
| | - Joel Stein
- Division of Pain Management, Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, USA
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Exploration of the Supraspinal Hypotheses about Spinal Cord Stimulation and Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation: A Systematic Review. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10132766. [PMID: 34201877 PMCID: PMC8268298 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10132766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the established efficacy and effectiveness of Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS), there is still no consensus on the supraspinal mechanisms of action of this therapy. The purpose of this study was to systematically review previously raised hypotheses concerning supraspinal mechanisms of action of SCS based on human, animal and computational studies. Searches were conducted using four electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS and Web of Science), backward reference searching and consultation with experts. The study protocol was registered prior to initiation of the review process (PROSPERO CRD42020161531). A total of 54 publications were included, 21 of which were animal studies, and 33 were human studies. The supraspinal hypotheses (n = 69) identified from the included studies could be categorized into six groups concerning the proposed supraspinal hypothesis, namely descending pathways (n = 24); ascending medial pathway (n = 13); ascending lateral pathway (n = 10); affective/motivational influences (n = 8); spinal–cerebral (thalamic)-loop (n = 3) and miscellaneous (n = 11). Scientific support is provided for the hypotheses identified. Modulation of the descending nociceptive inhibitory pathways, medial and lateral pathways were the most frequently reported hypotheses about the supraspinal mechanisms of action of SCS. These hypotheses were mainly supported by studies with a high or moderate confidence in the body of evidence.
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6
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Effects of Tonic Spinal Cord Stimulation on External Mechanical and Thermal Stimuli Perception Using Quantitative Sensory Testing. Clin J Pain 2019; 36:189-196. [DOI: 10.1097/ajp.0000000000000791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Caylor J, Reddy R, Yin S, Cui C, Huang M, Huang C, Rao R, Baker DG, Simmons A, Souza D, Narouze S, Vallejo R, Lerman I. Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: evidence and theory for mechanisms of action. Bioelectron Med 2019; 5:12. [PMID: 31435499 PMCID: PMC6703564 DOI: 10.1186/s42234-019-0023-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Well-established in the field of bioelectronic medicine, Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) offers an implantable, non-pharmacologic treatment for patients with intractable chronic pain conditions. Chronic pain is a widely heterogenous syndrome with regard to both pathophysiology and the resultant phenotype. Despite advances in our understanding of SCS-mediated antinociception, there still exists limited evidence clarifying the pathways recruited when patterned electric pulses are applied to the epidural space. The rapid clinical implementation of novel SCS methods including burst, high frequency and dorsal root ganglion SCS has provided the clinician with multiple options to treat refractory chronic pain. While compelling evidence for safety and efficacy exists in support of these novel paradigms, our understanding of their mechanisms of action (MOA) dramatically lags behind clinical data. In this review, we reconstruct the available basic science and clinical literature that offers support for mechanisms of both paresthesia spinal cord stimulation (P-SCS) and paresthesia-free spinal cord stimulation (PF-SCS). While P-SCS has been heavily examined since its inception, PF-SCS paradigms have recently been clinically approved with the support of limited preclinical research. Thus, wide knowledge gaps exist between their clinical efficacy and MOA. To close this gap, many rich investigative avenues for both P-SCS and PF-SCS are underway, which will further open the door for paradigm optimization, adjunctive therapies and new indications for SCS. As our understanding of these mechanisms evolves, clinicians will be empowered with the possibility of improving patient care using SCS to selectively target specific pathophysiological processes in chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Caylor
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Rajiv Reddy
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Sopyda Yin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Christina Cui
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Mingxiong Huang
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Radiology, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Charles Huang
- Department of Radiology, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA USA
| | - Ramesh Rao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Dewleen G. Baker
- VA Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Alan Simmons
- VA Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Dmitri Souza
- Center for Pain Medicine, Western Reserve Hospital. Department of Surgery, Northeast Ohio Medical School (NEOMED), Athens, OH USA
| | - Samer Narouze
- Center for Pain Medicine, Western Reserve Hospital. Department of Surgery, Northeast Ohio Medical School (NEOMED), Athens, OH USA
| | - Ricardo Vallejo
- Basic Science Research, Millennium Pain Center, Bloomington, IL USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, IL USA
- Department of Psychology, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL USA
| | - Imanuel Lerman
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA USA
- VA Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Radiology, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Present Address: VA San Diego, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr, (MC116A), San Diego, CA 92161 USA
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8
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Sivanesan E, Maher D, Raja SN, Linderoth B, Guan Y. Supraspinal Mechanisms of Spinal Cord Stimulation for Modulation of Pain: Five Decades of Research and Prospects for the Future. Anesthesiology 2019; 130:651-665. [PMID: 30556812 PMCID: PMC6338535 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000002353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The field of spinal cord stimulation is expanding rapidly, with new waveform paradigms asserting supraspinal sites of action. The scope of treatment applications is also broadening from chronic pain to include cerebral ischemia, dystonia, tremor, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, neuropsychiatric disorders, memory, addiction, cognitive function, and other neurologic diseases. The role of neurostimulation as an alternative strategy to opioids for chronic pain treatment is under robust discussion in both scientific and public forums. An understanding of the supraspinal mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of spinal cord stimulation will aid in the appropriate application and development of optimal stimulation strategies for modulating pain signaling pathways. In this review, the authors focus on clinical and preclinical studies that indicate the role of supraspinal mechanisms in spinal cord stimulation-induced pain inhibition, and explore directions for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eellan Sivanesan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Dermot Maher
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Srinivasa N. Raja
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Bengt Linderoth
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Tomtebodavägen 18A:05, SE 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yun Guan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Bordeleau M, Carrondo Cottin S, Meier K, Prud'Homme M. Effects of Tonic Spinal Cord Stimulation on Sensory Perception in Chronic Pain Patients: A Systematic Review. Neuromodulation 2018; 22:149-162. [PMID: 30506960 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Even if spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is widely used and effective in treating intractable chronic neuropathic pain conditions, little is known about its possible impacts on sensory perception. Quantitative sensory testing (QST) is a useful tool to assess this issue. The aim of this study was to review the impact of tonic SCS on somatosensory perception quantified by QST in chronic pain patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS Relevant articles and abstracts were searched in all languages from CINAHL, Cochrane, Embase, MEDLINE, and Web of Knowledge data bases. Data were extracted and included studies were assessed for risk of bias. RESULTS Out of 5610 records, 15 peer-reviewed articles were eligible and included. The results are heterogeneous due to inadequate comparability among studies for populations (a total of 224 patients diagnosed with more than 13 chronic pain conditions), QST parameters (22 measured with 25 different devices) and experimental procedures (study design, comparator, evaluation time, and area tested). The wide variety of studies, designs, populations, and measures included in this review did not lead to strong evidence on how conventional ("tonic") SCS affects sensory processing in patients with chronic pain. CONCLUSIONS The data available tend to suggest that conventional SCS does not interfere with perception of external stimuli. New studies that follow a standardized procedure and consider the possible influence of sensory profile, after-effect bias, and confounding factors are required to confirm this observation. Moreover, the impact on sensory perception of other SCS modalities and alternative electrical neuromodulation therapies could also be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Bordeleau
- Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Axe neurosciences, Quebec city, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sylvine Carrondo Cottin
- Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Axe neurosciences, Quebec city, Quebec, Canada
| | - Kaare Meier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Anesthesiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michel Prud'Homme
- Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Axe neurosciences, Quebec city, Quebec, Canada
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10
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Sankarasubramanian V, Harte SE, Chiravuri S, Harris RE, Brummett CM, Patil PG, Clauw DJ, Lempka SF. Objective Measures to Characterize the Physiological Effects of Spinal Cord Stimulation in Neuropathic Pain: A Literature Review. Neuromodulation 2018; 22:127-148. [PMID: 30246905 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The physiological mechanisms behind the therapeutic effects of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) are only partially understood. Our aim was to perform a literature review of studies that used objective measures to characterize mechanisms of action of SCS in neuropathic pain patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS We searched the PubMed data base to identify clinical studies that used objective measures to assess the effects of SCS in neuropathic pain. We extracted the study factors (e.g., type of measure, diagnoses, painful area[s], and SCS parameters) and outcomes from the included studies. RESULTS We included 67 studies. Of these, 24 studies used neurophysiological measures, 14 studies used functional neuroimaging techniques, three studies used a combination of neurophysiological and functional neuroimaging techniques, 14 studies used quantitative sensory testing, and 12 studies used proteomic, vascular, and/or pedometric measures. Our findings suggest that SCS largely inhibits somatosensory processing and/or spinal nociceptive activity. Our findings also suggest that SCS modulates activity across specific regions of the central nervous system that play a prominent role in the sensory and emotional functions of pain. CONCLUSIONS SCS appears to modulate pain via spinal and/or supraspinal mechanisms of action (e.g., pain gating, descending pain inhibition). However, to better understand the mechanisms of action of SCS, we believe that it is necessary to carry out systematic, controlled, and well-powered studies using objective patient measures. To optimize the clinical effectiveness of SCS for neuropathic pain, we also believe that it is necessary to develop and implement patient-specific approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven E Harte
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Srinivas Chiravuri
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Richard E Harris
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Chad M Brummett
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Parag G Patil
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Daniel J Clauw
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Scott F Lempka
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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11
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Sdrulla AD, Guan Y, Raja SN. Spinal Cord Stimulation: Clinical Efficacy and Potential Mechanisms. Pain Pract 2018. [PMID: 29526043 DOI: 10.1111/papr.12692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a minimally invasive therapy used for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain. SCS is a safe and effective alternative to medications such as opioids, and multiple randomized controlled studies have demonstrated efficacy for difficult-to-treat neuropathic conditions such as failed back surgery syndrome. Conventional SCS is believed mediate pain relief via activation of dorsal column Aβ fibers, resulting in variable effects on sensory and pain thresholds, and measurable alterations in higher order cortical processing. Although potentiation of inhibition, as suggested by Wall and Melzack's gate control theory, continues to be the leading explanatory model, other segmental and supraspinal mechanisms have been described. Novel, non-standard, stimulation waveforms such as high-frequency and burst have been shown in some studies to be clinically superior to conventional SCS, however their mechanisms of action remain to be determined. Additional studies are needed, both mechanistic and clinical, to better understand optimal stimulation strategies for different neuropathic conditions, improve patient selection and optimize efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrei D Sdrulla
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A
| | - Yun Guan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.,Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A
| | - Srinivasa N Raja
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A
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12
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Akiyama H, Nukui S, Akamatu M, Hasegawa Y, Nishikido O, Inoue S. Effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation for painful camptocormia with Pisa syndrome in Parkinson's disease: a case report. BMC Neurol 2017; 17:148. [PMID: 28774283 PMCID: PMC5543441 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-017-0926-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has recently been reported to be effective for truncal postural abnormalities such as camptocormia and Pisa syndrome in Parkinson's disease. In this case report, we describe a case of a woman with Parkinson's disease in whom SCS was effective for painful camptocormia with Pisa syndrome. CASE PRESENTATION A 65-year-old woman was admitted to our hospital because of painful camptocormia. She had noticed resting tremor in the left upper limb and aprosody at 48 years of age. She was diagnosed as having Parkinson's disease (Hoehn & Yahr stage 1) at 53 years of age. Cabergoline was started during that same year, with subsequent addition of selegiline hydrochloride; the symptoms of parkinsonism disappeared. Wearing-off occurred when she was 57 years old, 3 years after starting carbidopa/levodopa, and truncal postural abnormalities-painful camptocormia with Pisa syndrome to the right-appeared at 58 years of age. These symptoms worsened despite adjustment of her oral medications, and deep brain stimulation (DBS) was performed when she was 60 years old. The truncal postural abnormalities improved after DBS, and she could travel abroad at 61 years of age. However, from 62 years of age, painful camptocormia with Pisa syndrome to the right reappeared. The pain was unsuccessfully treated with oral analgesics, radiofrequency coagulation of the dorsal and medial branches of the lumbar spinal nerve, and lumbar epidural block. Finally, SCS was performed for the pain relief. The pain disappeared immediately after SCS and her posture then gradually improved. Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale score improved from 48 to 34 points and Timed Up and Go Test improved from 15 s to 7 s after SCS. CONCLUSIONS This case suggests that SCS may be effective for improving painful truncal postural abnormalities and motor complications of Parkinson's disease. Pain relief or a direct effect on the central nervous system by SCS was considered to explain the alleviation of these symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisanao Akiyama
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 216-8511, Japan.
| | - Saki Nukui
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 216-8511, Japan
| | - Masashi Akamatu
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 216-8511, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Hasegawa
- Department of Neurology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 216-8511, Japan
| | - Osamu Nishikido
- Department of Palliative Medicine, Showa University Northern Yokohama Hospital, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Soichiro Inoue
- Department of Anesthesiology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
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Ahmed SU, Zhang Y, Chen L, St Hillary K, Cohen A, Vo T, Houghton M, Mao J. Effects of Spinal Cord Stimulation on Pain Thresholds and Sensory Perceptions in Chronic Pain Patients. Neuromodulation 2015; 18:355-60. [PMID: 26033205 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has been in clinical use for nearly four decades. In earliest observations, researchers found a significant increase in pain threshold during SCS therapy without changes associated with touch, position, and vibration sensation. Subsequent studies yielded diverse results regarding how SCS impacts pain and other sensory thresholds. This pilot study uses quantitative sensory testing (QST) to objectively quantify the impact of SCS on warm sensation, heat pain threshold, and heat pain tolerance. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nineteen subjects with an indwelling SCS device for chronic pain were subjected to QST with heat stimuli. QST was performed on an area of pain covered with SCS-induced paresthesia and an area without pain and without paresthesia, while the SCS was turned off and on. The temperature at which the patient detected warm sensation, heat pain, and maximal tolerable heat pain was used to define the thresholds. RESULTS We found that all three parameters, the detection of warm sensation, heat pain threshold, and heat pain tolerance, were increased during the period when SCS was on compared with when it was off. This increase was observed in both painful and non-painful sites. CONCLUSION The observed pain relief during SCS therapy seems to be related to its impact on increased sensory threshold as detected in this study. The increased sensory threshold on areas without pain and without the presence of SCS coverage may indicate a central (spinal and/or supra-spinal) influence from SCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihab U Ahmed
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yi Zhang
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lucy Chen
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kristin St Hillary
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abigail Cohen
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Trang Vo
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mary Houghton
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jianren Mao
- MGH Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Abejón D, Rueda P, del Saz J, Arango S, Monzón E, Gilsanz F. Is the introduction of another variable to the strength-duration curve necessary in neurostimulation? Neuromodulation 2014; 18:182-90; discussion 190. [PMID: 25171670 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neurostimulation is the process and technology derived from the application of electricity with different parameters to activate or inhibit nerve pathways. Pulse width (Pw) is the duration of each electrical impulse and, along with amplitude (I), determines the total energy charge of the stimulation. OBJECTIVES The aim of the study was to test Pw values to find the most adequate pulse widths in rechargeable systems to obtain the largest coverage of the painful area, the most comfortable paresthesia, and the greatest patient satisfaction. MATERIAL AND METHODS A study of the parameters was performed, varying Pw while maintaining a fixed frequency at 50 Hz. Data on perception threshold (Tp ), discomfort threshold (Td ), and therapeutic threshold (Tt ) were recorded, applying 14 increasing Pw values ranging from 50 µsec to 1000 µsec. Lastly, the behavior of the therapeutic range (TR), the coverage of the painful area, the subjective patient perception of paresthesia, and the degree of patient satisfaction were assessed. RESULTS The findings after analyzing the different thresholds were as follows: When varying the Pw, the differences obtained at each threshold (Tp , Tt , and Td ) were statistically significant (p < 0.05). The differences among the resulting Tp values and among the resulting Tt values were statistically significant when varying Pw from 50 up to 600 µsec (p < 0.05). For Pw levels 600 µsec and up, no differences were observed in these thresholds. In the case of Td , significant differences existed as Pw increased from 50 to 700 µsec (p ≤ 0.05). The coverage increased in a statistically significant way (p < 0.05) from Pw values of 50 µsec to 300 µsec. Good or very good subjective perception was shown at about Pw 300 µsec. CONCLUSIONS The patient paresthesia coverage was introduced as an extra variable in the chronaxie-rheobase curve, allowing the adjustment of Pw values for optimal programming. The coverage of the patient against the current chronaxie-rheobase formula will be represented on three axes; an extra axis (z) will appear, multiplying each combination of Pw value and amplitude by the percentage of coverage corresponding to those values. Using this new comparison of chronaxie-rheobase curve vs. coverage, maximum Pw values will be obtained different from those obtained by classic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Abejón
- Pain Unit, Hospital Universitario Quirón Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Deer TR, Krames E, Mekhail N, Pope J, Leong M, Stanton-Hicks M, Golovac S, Kapural L, Alo K, Anderson J, Foreman RD, Caraway D, Narouze S, Linderoth B, Buvanendran A, Feler C, Poree L, Lynch P, McJunkin T, Swing T, Staats P, Liem L, Williams K. The Appropriate Use of Neurostimulation: New and Evolving Neurostimulation Therapies and Applicable Treatment for Chronic Pain and Selected Disease States. Neuromodulation 2014; 17:599-615; discussion 615. [DOI: 10.1111/ner.12204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nagy Mekhail
- University of Kentucky-Lexington; Lexington KY USA
| | - Jason Pope
- Center for Pain Relief; Charleston WV USA
| | | | | | | | - Leo Kapural
- Carolinas Pain Institute at Brookstown; Wake Forest Baptist Health; Winston-Salem NC USA
| | - Ken Alo
- The Methodist Hospital Research Institute; Houston TX USA
- Monterey Technical Institute; Monterey Mexico
| | | | - Robert D. Foreman
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, College of Medicine; Oklahoma City OK USA
| | - David Caraway
- Center for Pain Relief, Tri-State, LLC; Huntington WV USA
| | - Samer Narouze
- Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Neurological Surgery; Summa Western Reserve Hospital; Cuyahoga Falls OH USA
| | - Bengt Linderoth
- Functional Neurosurgery and Applied Neuroscience Research Unit, Karolinska Institute; Karolinska University Hospital; Stockholm Sweden
| | | | - Claudio Feler
- University of Tennessee; Memphis TN USA
- Valley View Hospital; Glenwood Springs CO USA
| | - Lawrence Poree
- University of California at San Francisco; San Francisco CA USA
- Pain Clinic of Monterey Bay; Aptos CA
| | - Paul Lynch
- Arizona Pain Specialists; Scottsdale AZ USA
| | | | - Ted Swing
- Arizona Pain Specialists; Scottsdale AZ USA
| | - Peter Staats
- Premier Pain Management Centers; Shrewsbury NJ USA
- Johns Hopkins University; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Liong Liem
- St. Antonius Hospital; Nieuwegein The Netherlands
| | - Kayode Williams
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Carey Business School; Baltimore MD USA
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Urasaki E, Tsuda M, Nakane S, Toyoda K, Umeno T, Yamakawa Y. Spinal Cord Stimulation for Intractable Pain Evaluated by a Collision Study Using Somatosensory Evoked Potentials: A Preliminary Report. Neuromodulation 2014; 17:746-52; discussion 752. [DOI: 10.1111/ner.12205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eiichirou Urasaki
- Department of Neurosurgery; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
| | - Mami Tsuda
- Department of Clinical Engineering; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
| | - Shunya Nakane
- Department of Neurology; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
| | - Keisuke Toyoda
- Department of Neurosurgery; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
| | - Tetsuya Umeno
- Department of Neurosurgery; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
| | - Yuzo Yamakawa
- Department of Neurosurgery; Nagasaki Kawatana Medical Center; Nishi-kyusyu Brain and Nerve Center; Nagasaki Japan
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Poree L, Krames E, Pope J, Deer TR, Levy R, Schultz L. Spinal cord stimulation as treatment for complex regional pain syndrome should be considered earlier than last resort therapy. Neuromodulation 2013; 16:125-41. [PMID: 23441988 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2012] [Revised: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord stimulation (SCS), by virtue of its historically described up-front costs and level of invasiveness, has been relegated by several complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) treatment algorithms to a therapy of last resort. Newer information regarding safety, cost, and efficacy leads us to believe that SCS for the treatment of CRPS should be implemented earlier in a treatment algorithm using a more comprehensive approach. METHODS We reviewed the literature on pain care algorithmic thinking and applied the safety, appropriateness, fiscal or cost neutrality, and efficacy (S.A.F.E.) principles to establish an appropriate position for SCS in an algorithm of pain care. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Based on literature-contingent considerations of safety, efficacy, cost efficacy, and cost neutrality, we conclude that SCS should not be considered a therapy of last resort for CRPS but rather should be applied earlier (e.g., three months) as soon as more conservative therapies have failed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Poree
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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18
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Jeon YH. Spinal cord stimulation in pain management: a review. Korean J Pain 2012; 25:143-50. [PMID: 22787543 PMCID: PMC3389317 DOI: 10.3344/kjp.2012.25.3.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord stimulation has become a widely used and efficient alternative for the management of refractory chronic pain that is unresponsive to conservative therapies. Technological improvements have been considerable and the current neuromodulation devices are both extremely sophisticated and reliable in obtaining good results for various clinical situations of chronic pain, such as failed back surgery syndrome, complex regional pain syndrome, ischemic and coronary artery disease. This technique is likely to possess a savings in costs compared with alternative therapy strategies despite its high initial cost. Spinal cord stimulation continues to be a valuable tool in the treatment of chronic disabling pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hoon Jeon
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
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Sokal P, Harat M, Paczkowski D, Rudaś M, Birski M, Litwinowicz A. Results of neuromodulation for the management of chronic pain. Neurol Neurochir Pol 2012; 45:445-51. [PMID: 22127939 DOI: 10.1016/s0028-3843(14)60312-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Background and purpose : Neuromodulative treatment of chronic pain syndromes is a modern mode of treatment of neuropathic and ischaemic pain. Its effectiveness is well documented in the literature. The objective of this work is to present the results of treatment of chronic pain syndromes on the basis of eight-year experience in our department. Material and methods : Since 2002, we have conducted 9 operations of motor cortex stimulation (MCS), 2 of deep brain stimulation (DBS), 45 of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) and 5 of sacral root stimulation (SRS) in the treatment of chronic pain. Results : We obtained good long-term results of neuromodulation in the form of clinical improvement (> 50%) in 4 of 9 patients with MCS (44%), in 13 diagnosed with failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS), 8 with other neuropathic pain, and 11 with angina pectoris from a group of 45 treated with SCS. Sacral root stimulation has been successful in 3 of 5 patients with perianal pain. The best treatment results in SCS, although not statistically significant, were observed in patients treated due to FBSS (13 out of 15) and angina pectoris (11 out of 15) (p = 0.12). In patients with neuropathic pain, peripheral and central, improvement was obtained in 8 out of 15 patients. Conclusions : A good indication for spinal cord stimulation is FBSS and angina pectoris. Motor cortex stimulation is helpful in the treatment of chronic central neuropathic pain. Further observations and a larger group of patients are necessary for a reliable assessment of the effectiveness of neuromodulative treatment of chronic pain in our clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Sokal
- Department of Neurosurgery, 10th Militray Clinical Hospital, Bydgoszcz, Poland.
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Krames ES, Monis S, Poree L, Deer T, Levy R. Using the SAFE Principles When Evaluating Electrical Stimulation Therapies for the Pain of Failed Back Surgery Syndrome. Neuromodulation 2011; 14:299-311; discussion 311. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2011.00373.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Balzer JR, Tomycz ND, Crammond DJ, Habeych M, Thirumala PD, Urgo L, Moossy JJ. Localization of cervical and cervicomedullary stimulation leads for pain treatment using median nerve somatosensory evoked potential collision testing. J Neurosurg 2011; 114:200-5. [DOI: 10.3171/2010.5.jns091640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Object
Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is being currently used to treat medically refractory pain syndromes involving the face, trunk, and extremities. Unlike thoracic SCS surgery, during which patients can be awakened from conscious sedation to confirm good lead placement, safe placement of paddle leads in the cervical spine has required general anesthesia. Using intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring, which is routinely performed during these cases at the authors' institution, the authors developed an electrophysiological technique to intraoperatively lateralize lead placement in the cervical epidural space.
Methods
Data from 44 patients undergoing median and tibial nerve somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) monitoring during cervical laminectomy or hemilaminectomy for placement or replacement of dorsal column stimulators were retrospectively reviewed. Paddle leads were positioned laterally or just off midline and parallel to the axis of the cervical spinal cord to effectively treat what was most commonly a predominant unilateral pain syndrome. During SSEP recording, the spinal cord stimulator was activated at 1.0 V and increased in increments of 1.0 V to a maximum of 6.0 V. A unilateral reduction or abolishment of SSEP amplitude was regarded as an indicator of lateralized placement of the stimulator. A bilateral diminutive effect on SSEPs was interpreted as a midline or near midline lead placement.
Results
Epidural stimulation abolished or significantly reduced SSEP amplitudes in all patients undergoing placement for a unilateral pain syndrome. In 15 patients, electrodes were repositioned intraoperatively to achieve the most robust SSEP amplitude reduction or abolishment using the lowest epidural stimulation intensity. In all cases in which a significant unilateral reduction in SSEP was observed, the patient reported postoperative sensory alterations in target locations predicted by intraoperative SSEP changes. Placement of cervical spinal cord stimulators for bilateral pain syndromes often resulted in bilateral but asymmetrical SSEP changes. In no cases were significant SSEP changes, other than those induced using the device to directly stimulate the dorsal surface of the spinal cord, observed. No case of new postoperative neurological deficit was observed.
Conclusions
Somatosensory evoked potentials can be used safely and successfully for predicting the lateralization of cervical spinal cord stimulator placement. Moreover, they can also intraoperatively alert the surgical team to inadvertent displacement of a lead during anchoring. Further studies are needed to determine whether apart from assisting with proper lateralization, SSEP collision testing may help to optimize electrode positioning and improve pain control outcomes.
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Abejón D, Cameron T, Feler C, Pérez-Cajaraville J. Electric Parameters Optimization in Spinal Cord Stimulation. Study in Conventional Nonrechargeable Systems. Neuromodulation 2010; 13:281-6; discussion 286-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2010.00290.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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de Andrade DC, Bendib B, Hattou M, Keravel Y, Nguyen JP, Lefaucheur JP. Neurophysiological assessment of spinal cord stimulation in failed back surgery syndrome. Pain 2010; 150:485-491. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2010.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 03/27/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Jeon Y, Huh BK. Spinal Cord Stimulation for Chronic Pain. ANNALS OF THE ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, SINGAPORE 2009. [DOI: 10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.v38n11p998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is one of the most effective modalities for management of re- fractory neuropathic pain unresponsive to conservative therapies. The SCS has been successful in providing analgesia, improving function, and enhancing quality of life for patients suffering from chronic pain conditions such as failed back surgery syndrome, complex regional pain syndrome, ischaemic and phantom limb pain, and coronary artery disease. This technique has proven to be cost effective in the long term despite its high initial cost. In this review article, we discuss the history of SCS development, mechanism of action, and indications for SCS.
Key words: Failed back surgery syndrome, Ischaemic pain, Neuropathic pain
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Affiliation(s)
- Younghoon Jeon
- Kyungpook National University Hospital, Republic of Korea
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25
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Vaquer Quiles L, Blasco González L, Asensio Samper J, Villanueva Pérez VL, López Alarcón MD, De Andrés Ibáñez J. Epidural Neurostimulation of Posterior Funiculi for the Treatment of Buerger's Disease. Neuromodulation 2009; 12:156-60. [PMID: 22151290 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2009.00203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background. Buerger disease is a nonatherosclerotic, segmental, occlusive and recurrent inflammatory vascular disorder that affects small and medium-sized arteries and veins of the upper and lower extremities. Case reports. We report two cases of Buerger disease. Medical History. Smoking habit. No autoimmune diseases. No diabetes mellitus. Intermittent vascular claudication at 100-150 m. Several hospital admissions for amputations. Prior Medical Treatment. Antiplatelet agents, vasodilators, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, third-step analgesics, fibrinolytic treatment and lumbar sympathectomies. Following all of the above treatments, Synergy(®) spinal cord (ECP) stimulator with two electrodes (Quad PISCES(©) ) placed at the level of T9-T10. Results. There has been a reduction in pain of about 80% and an improvement of intermittent claudication (one of the patients no longer claudicates, whereas the other patient claudicates at 400 m). Conclusion. Neurostimulation of the posterior funiculi could be considered not only as palliative care but also as a therapeutic option.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Vaquer Quiles
- Multidisciplinary Unit for Pain Treatment, General University Hospital Consortium of Valencia, Spain
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Krames ES, Foreman R. Spinal Cord Stimulation Modulates Visceral Nociception and Hyperalgesia via the Spinothalamic Tracts and the Postsynaptic Dorsal Column Pathways: A Literature Review and Hypothesis. Neuromodulation 2007; 10:224-37. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2007.00112.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Polácek H, Kozák J, Vrba I, Vrána J, Stancák A. Effects of spinal cord stimulation on the cortical somatosensory evoked potentials in failed back surgery syndrome patients. Clin Neurophysiol 2007; 118:1291-302. [PMID: 17452003 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2007.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2006] [Revised: 02/21/2007] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the functional activation of the somatosensory cortical regions in neuropathic pain patients during therapeutic spinal cord stimulation (SCS). METHODS In nine failed back surgery syndrome patients, the left tibial and the left sural nerves were stimulated in two sessions with intensities at motor and pain thresholds, respectively. The cortical somatosensory evoked potentials were analyzed using source dipole analysis based on 111 EEG signals. RESULTS The short-latency components of the source located in the right primary somatosensory cortex (SI: 43, 54 and 65ms) after tibial nerve stimulation, the mid-latency SI component (87ms) after sural nerve stimulation, and the mid-latency components in the right (approximately 161ms) and left (approximately 168ms) secondary somatosensory cortices (SII) were smaller in the presence of SCS than in absence of SCS. The long-latency source component arising from the mid-cingulate cortex (approximately 313ms) was smaller for tibial and larger for sural nerve stimuli during SCS periods compared to periods without SCS. CONCLUSIONS SCS attenuates the somatosensory processing in the SI and SII. In the mid-cingulate cortex, the effect of SCS depends on the type of stimulation and nerve fibers involved. SIGNIFICANCE Results suggest that the effects of SCS on cortical somatosensory processing may contribute to a reduction of allodynia during SCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubert Polácek
- Charles University Prague, Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Ke Karlovu 4, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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Lind G, Schechtmann G, Winter J, Linderoth B. Drug-enhanced spinal stimulation for pain: a new strategy. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENT 2007; 97:57-63. [PMID: 17691357 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-33079-1_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is notoriously difficult to manage and only a few classes of drugs may provide adequate benefits. Thus, in many cases spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is considered; however, in this group of patients, between 30-50% of the cases offered a percutaneous SCS trial may fail to obtain a satisfactory effect. Additionally, a certain number of patients with a good initial effect, report that after a period the benefits are reduced necessitating additional peroral drug therapy. Based on animal studies of transmitters and receptors involved in the effects of SCS in neuropathic pain, the GABA-B receptor seems to play a pivotal role for the effect and, moreover, the agonist baclofen injected intrathecally in rats potentiated the SCS effect in animals not responsive to SCS per se. Based on these and further studies, 48 patients with neuropathic pain and inadequate response to SCS were given intrathecal (i.t.) baclofen (ITB) in bolus doses as an adjuvant. In this group 7 patients enjoyed such a good effect that they were implanted with both SCS and drug delivery systems for ITB. Four additional cases received baclofen pumps alone. Some other patients were given intrathecal (i.t.) adenosine in combination with SCS and initially preferred this to baclofen. The chronic use of this drug in a pump however proved to be technically problematic and all the adenosine cases were eventually terminated. At follow-ups, in average 32 and 67 months after start of SCS + baclofen therapy, more than 50% still enjoy a very good effect. The daily dose of baclofen needed to maintain the effects was approximately doubled during the observation period. There were few and mild side-effects. However, in a group of three patients with peroral baclofen therapy and SCS, complaints of side-effects were common and this therapy was terminated. Informal reports from collegues support the negative experience with additional peroral baclofen. In conclusion, in patients with neuropathic pain demonstrating inadequate response to SCS (small VAS reduction; short duration) a trial of intrathecal baclofen in combination with SCS may be warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Lind
- Department of Neurosurgery, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Seo KW, Choi SS, Lee HJ, Koo EH, Kim HZ, Oh HR, Kim NS. Cervical Spinal Cord Stimulation in a Patient with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type 2 at the Middle Finger - A case report -. Korean J Anesthesiol 2007. [DOI: 10.4097/kjae.2007.52.6.733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung Won Seo
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Sik Choi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ho Jun Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eun Hye Koo
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hee Zoo Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Ran Oh
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Nan Sook Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Lee MG, Lee HM, Jo JY, Choi YS, Ku UK, Lee CJ, Lee SC, Kim YC. An Analysis of Paresthesia Areas Evoked by Spinal Cord Stimulation in Relation to the Position of Electrode Tip. Korean J Pain 2006. [DOI: 10.3344/kjp.2006.19.2.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mi Geum Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyo Min Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji Yon Jo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yun Suk Choi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ui Kyoung Ku
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Chul Joong Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Chul Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yong Chul Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Inui K, Tsuji T, Kakigi R. Temporal Analysis of Cortical Mechanisms for Pain Relief by Tactile Stimuli in Humans. Cereb Cortex 2005; 16:355-65. [PMID: 15901650 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhi114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms by which vibrotactile stimuli relieve pain are not well understood, especially in humans. We recorded cortical magnetic responses to paired noxious (intra-epidermal electrical stimulation, IES) and innocuous (transcutaneous electrical stimulation, TS) stimuli applied to the back at a conditioning-test interval (CTI) of -500 to 500 ms. Results showed that IES-induced responses were remarkably attenuated when TS was applied 20-60 ms later and 0-500 ms earlier than IES (CTI = -60 to 500 ms). Since the signals evoked by IES reached the spinal cord (CTI = -60 to -20 ms conditions) and the cortex (-60 and -40 ms condition) earlier than those evoked by TS, the present results indicate that cortical responses to noxious stimuli can be inhibited by innocuous tactile stimuli at the cortical level, with minimal contribution at the spinal level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Inui
- Department of Integrative Physiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan.
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Moro-Velasco C, Cuesta-Agudo MJ, Sannorberto L, Sánchez-Montero FJ, Santos-Lamas J, Muriel-Villoria C. Sjögren Syndrome and Spinal Cord Stimulation: A Case Report. Neuromodulation 2005; 8:100-4. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2005.00225.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Krames E, Mousad DG. Spinal Cord Stimulation Reverses Pain and Diarrheal Episodes of Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Case Report. Neuromodulation 2004; 7:82-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1094-7159.2004.04011.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Neuroaugmentation, the use of chronic stimulation of the brain and spinal cord for pain management, developed during the past 30 years. It evolved, however, from concepts of pain treatment that were based on observations and clinical experience dating back an additional two decades or more. The appreciation of the role of the extralemniscal system and descending influences from the brain in modulation of pain perception led to the Melzack-Wall gate theory. The concept proposed in that theory, that pain perception could be lessened by increasing activity in neural structures not associated with pain, led to chronic stimulation of deep brain and spinal cord as a modality for the management of chronic pain. Both brain and spinal structures emerged as targets for neuroaugmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L Gildenberg
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Radiation Oncology, Baylor Medical College, Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Medical School, Houston, TX, USA.
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Krames E. Implantable devices for pain control: spinal cord stimulation and intrathecal therapies. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2002; 16:619-49. [PMID: 12516895 DOI: 10.1053/bean.2002.0263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Untreated chronic pain is costly to society and to the individual suffering from it. The treatment of chronic pain, a multidimensional disease, should rely on the expertise of varying health care providers and should focus not only on the neurobiological mechanisms of the process but also on the psychosocial aspects of the disease. Implantable devices are costly and invasive, and such efficacious therapies should be used only when more conservative and less costly therapies have failed to provide relief of pain and suffering. Spinal cord stimulation provides neuromodulation of neuropathic, but not nociceptive, pain signals and when used for appropriate indications in the right individuals provides approximately 60-80% long-term pain relief in 60-80% of patients trialled for efficacy. Intrathecal therapies with opioids such as morphine, fentanyl, sufentanil or meperidine--or non-opioids such as clonidine or bupivacaine--provide analgesia in patients with nociceptive or neuropathic pain syndromes. Baclofen, intrathecally, provides profound relief of muscle spasticity due to multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, brain injuries or cerebral palsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot Krames
- Pacific Pain Treatment Centers and Neuromodulation, Journal of the International Neuromodulation Society, San Francisco, California 94109, USA
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Stanton‐Hicks M. Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Management of Complex Regional Pain Syndromes. Neuromodulation 2002; 2:193-201. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1525-1403.1999.00193.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Stanton‐Hicks
- Division of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Pain Management and Research, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio
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Krames E. Spinal Cord Stimulation: Indications, Mechanism of Action, and Efficacy. CURRENT REVIEW OF PAIN 2000; 3:419-426. [PMID: 10998699 DOI: 10.1007/s11916-999-0068-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Unrelieved pain is costly to the economic fabric of our society; its direct costs to patients and their families is staggering. Spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain is cost-effective when used in the context of a pain treatment continuum. Many theories on the mechanism of action of spinal cord stimulation have been suggested, including activation of gate control mechanisms, conductance blockade of the spinothalamic tracts, activation of supraspinal mechanisms, blockade of supraspinal sympathetic mechanisms, and activation or release of putative neuromodulators. Whatever theory or theories of mechanism are correct, spinal cord stimulation has efficacy in the treatment of failed back surgery syndrome, complex regional pain syndromes, intractable pain due to peripheral vascular disease, and intractable pain due to angina.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Krames
- Pacific Pain Treatment Centers, 2000 Van Ness Avenue, Suite 402, San Francisco, CA 94109, USA
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Saadé NE, Atweh SF, Privat A, Jabbur SJ. Inhibitory effects from various types of dorsal column and raphe magnus stimulations on nociceptive withdrawal flexion reflexes. Brain Res 1999; 846:72-86. [PMID: 10536215 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)02003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Most of the clinical and research reports agree about the analgesic effects of dorsal column (DC) stimulation, but there is no unanimity about the neural mechanisms involved in this stimulation. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of segmental and rostral activation of the DCs and to investigate whether these effects are mediated through a brainstem spinal loop. Decerebrate-decerebellate cats were subjected to selective DC lesions at C(1) and C(3) spinal cervical levels and their reflex reactions to natural or electrical nociceptive stimuli were monitored either as withdrawal flexion reflexes or as motorneuronal discharges. Conditioning stimulation was performed as train of shocks (100 Hz, for 1 to 10 min or 300 Hz for 30 ms) applied on the DCs either rostral (DCr) or caudal (DCc) to the spinal lesions or on the raphe magnus (RM). Conditioning trains for 5-10 min applied on DCr inhibited the withdrawal flexion reflexes recorded as toe flexion (90% of the control). Comparisons of the effects of DCr, DCc or RM of conditioning stimuli were made on the discharges of 110 motorneurons recorded in isolated ventral root fibers. Conditioning stimulation applied to DCc produced short lived inhibition (in about 60%) or facilitation (in about 30% of the neurons) while DCr or RM conditioning produced inhibition in 90% of neurons which outlasted the duration of the conditioning trains. It was also shown that repetitive application of conditioning train on either DCr or RM resulted in longer duration of inhibition than that observed following DCc conditioning. We conclude that the stronger inhibition of motorneuronal discharges, evoked by nociceptive stimuli, is obtained by rostral activation of the DCs and that long term effects of DCst are mediated through a DC-brainstem-spinal loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- N E Saadé
- Department of Human Morphology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.
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Ren B, Linderoth B, Meyerson BA. Effects of spinal cord stimulation on the flexor reflex and involvement of supraspinal mechanisms: an experimental study in mononeuropathic rats. J Neurosurg 1996; 84:244-9. [PMID: 8592227 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1996.84.2.0244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The physiological mechanisms responsible for pain relief caused by spinal cord stimulation (SCS) are essentially unknown and recent experimental data are sparse. In the present study the authors explored the possible involvement of supraspinal mechanisms in the effects of SCS applied in rats with experimental mononeuropathy produced by sciatic nerve ligation according to the method of Bennett and Xie or that of Seltzer, et al. Confirming results of a previous study undertaken by the authors, the thresholds of the early component of the flexor reflex (latency 8-12 msec), which is mediated by A fibers, were significantly lower in the nerve-ligated than in the intact leg. In halothane-anesthetized animals the spinal cord was exposed and SCS was applied with parameters similar to those used in clinical SCS. Ten minutes of SCS produced a significant elevation of the lowered threshold of the early flexor component only in the nerve-ligated leg, and this augmentatory effect of SCS persisted for 30 to 40 minutes after cessation of the stimulation. The threshold elevation amounted to between 50% and 80% of the prestimulatory value and it was related to the intensity of SCS. The threshold of the late, C-fiber-mediated component of the flexor reflex was not influenced in either of the legs. After transection of the spinal cord at the T-6 level, there was a moderate threshold increase in both the early and late components in both legs, but the threshold of the early component in the nerve-ligated leg remained lower. Spinal cord stimulation produced an almost identical threshold increase in the early component in the nerve-ligated leg with the same time course as before the transection. There was no effect on the late component of the reflex in either leg. The results indicate that this effect of SCS in mononeuropathic rats does not necessarily involve supraspinal mechanisms; instead SCS is operative at a spinal, segmental level. In view of the similarities between the effects of therapeutic SCS on cutaneous hypersensibility in patients with peripheral neuropathic pain and the effects demonstrated in neuropathic rats, the clinical pain relief achieved with SCS may be produced, at least partially, by intraspinal mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ren
- Karolinska Institute Center for Pain Research, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Stiller CO, Linderoth B, O'Connor WT, Franck J, Falkenberg T, Ungerstedt U, Brodin E. Repeated spinal cord stimulation decreases the extracellular level of gamma-aminobutyric acid in the periaqueductal gray matter of freely moving rats. Brain Res 1995; 699:231-41. [PMID: 8616626 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(95)00911-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Most of the previous experimental studies on the antinociceptive effects of electrical spinal cord stimulation (SCS) have focused on short-lasting effects mainly depending on spinal mechanisms. However, patients treated with SCS for chronic pain often report pain relief exceeding the period of stimulation for several hours. The long lasting effect of SCS might not only involve spinal, but also supraspinal mechanisms. A supraspinal region of major importance for the coordination of descending pain inhibition is the periaqueductal grey matter (PAG). The aim of the present microdialysis study, performed in awake freely moving rats, was to investigate if repeated SCS (two 30 min periods separated by a 90 min resting period) alters the extracellular neurotransmitter concentrations in the ventrolateral PAG. In a first series of experiments significantly decreased (-30%; P < 0.05; n = 7) gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels were detected immediately after the second SCS session. Neither the concentration of serotonin nor that of substance P-like immunoreactivity (SP-LI) was affected by SCS. The decrease of GABA after two SCS sessions was confirmed in a second series of experiments (-30%; P < 0.05; n = 7). No spontaneous decline of GABA was observed in sham-stimulated animals (n = 6). The glutamate concentration was also determined in this latter series of experiments and a significant decrease (-23%; P < 0.05; n = 5) was observed after the second SCS session. As GABA-neurons in the PAG exert a tonic depressive effect on the activity in descending pain inhibitory pathways, a decreased extracellular GABA level in this region, as detected following repeated SCS, might indicate an increased pain inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- C O Stiller
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Meyerson BA, Ren B, Herregodts P, Linderoth B. Spinal cord stimulation in animal models of mononeuropathy: effects on the withdrawal response and the flexor reflex. Pain 1995; 61:229-243. [PMID: 7659433 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3959(94)00171-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is efficacious for pain due to injury of peripheral nerves, and therefore models of mononeuropathy appear to be particularly suitable for an experimental approach to the study of mechanisms underlying the clinical effect of this mode of treatment in chronic neuropathic pain. Virtually all previous experimental studies on SCS have utilized acute and nociceptive types of peripheral pain stimuli to explore the attenuating effects of SCS. In the present study we made use of the two models of supposedly painful neuropathy developed by Bennett and Xie (1988) and Seltzer et al. (1990) to explore the effect of SCS applied with stimulus parameters similar to those used in clinical practice. In rats subjected to ligatures of the sciatic nerve according to these two methods, SCS was applied via chronically implanted electrodes, or acutely via a laminectomy in the lower thoracic region. In awake, freely moving animals SCS produced a marked increase of the withdrawal thresholds to innocuous mechanical stimuli in the form of von Frey filaments. This threshold elevation lasted for up to 40 min after 10 min of SCS. In about one-half of the animals there was also a moderate, but short-lasting increase in the intact leg. The degree and duration of the withdrawal threshold elevation was clearly related to the intensity of SCS which was kept below the level of which a response in the thoracic or leg musculature was produced. In a second series of experiments the effect of SCS, applied acutely via a laminectomy, on the early component (latency: 8-12 msec) of the flexor reflex was studied. As a result of nerve ligation with either of the methods used, the thresholds for evoking the early as well as the late component in the nerve-ligated leg were significantly lower than in the intact one. SCS resulted in a marked and long-lasting increase of the threshold of the early component in the nerve-ligated leg. On the intact side only a slight and short-lasting increase was observed. The late, C fibre-mediated component was not influenced by SCS. The first component of the flexor reflex is conceivably mediated by A beta-fibre activation and it presumably corresponds to the withdrawal response induced by innocuous mechanical stimuli. The lack of effect of SCS on the late reflex component indicates that it selectively influences transmission of A-fibre activity. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Meyerson
- Departments of Neurosurgery Karolinska Institute Center for Pain Research, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden Central Hospital of Dalian University, Dalian, People's Republic of China Academisch Ziekenhuis, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels, Belgium
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Linderoth B, Gazelius B, Franck J, Brodin E. Dorsal column stimulation induces release of serotonin and substance P in the cat dorsal horn. Neurosurgery 1992; 31:289-96; discussion 296-7. [PMID: 1381066 DOI: 10.1227/00006123-199208000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurohumoral mechanisms behind the pain-suppressing effect of dorsal column stimulation (DCS) still remain obscure. Experimental observations have indicated an inhibitory role for serotonin and, under certain conditions, also for substance P (SP), on nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord. Furthermore, some observations suggest that these substances might be involved in the effect of DCS. The present series of experiments was undertaken to investigate whether serotonin and SP are released in the dorsal horn by DCS. Twenty-one adult cats, in some experiments anesthetized, in others decerebrated at the midcollicular level, were used. Microdialysis probes were implanted bilaterally in lumbar dorsal horns (L5-L7) and perfused with Krebs' solution. Dialysates were analyzed for serotonin by high-performance liquid chromatography or for SP by radioimmunoassay. DCS was applied at the thoracolumbar junction with current parameters similar to those used clinically in humans. DCS induced a significant release of serotonin in the dorsal horn of decerebrated animals (173 +/- 83% increase; mean +/- standard error; n = 4; P less than 0.01), whereas the levels of the metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid were not significantly influenced. In contrast, no release of SP could be recorded in response to DCS in the decerebrated preparation, although peripheral nociceptive stimulation (pinch) and noxious electric dorsal root stimulation induced an elevation of the SP levels. However, in intact animals DCS provoked a marked SP release in the dorsal horn (190 +/- 92% increase; n = 7; P less than 0.01). The release of serotonin and SP after DCS may indicate that these substances participate in the mediation of the pain alleviating effect of DCS.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- B Linderoth
- Department of Neurosurgery, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Dorsal Column Stimulation Induces Release of Serotonin and Substance P in the Cat Dorsal Horn. Neurosurgery 1992. [DOI: 10.1097/00006123-199208000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Marchand S, Bushnell MC, Molina-Negro P, Martinez SN, Duncan GH. The effects of dorsal column stimulation on measures of clinical and experimental pain in man. Pain 1991; 45:249-257. [PMID: 1876434 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3959(91)90049-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Despite the extensive use of dorsal column stimulation (DCS) for the control of various chronic pain conditions, most clinicians report only modest success rates. Surprisingly, there has been little placebo-controlled investigation of its efficacy for altering either clinical or experimental pain perception. The current study compared the effects of DCS to placebo stimulation on clinical pain perception, perceived intensity of painful heat stimuli and visual stimuli, and the discrimination of small changes in noxious heat intensity and in light intensity. We found that DCS, but not placebo stimulation, significantly altered ratings of spontaneous clinical pain as well as those of painful cutaneous heat. In addition, heat discrimination thresholds were increased by DCS, but not placebo. On the other hand, DCS had no effect on ratings of visual stimulus intensity nor on visual discrimination, suggesting that the DCS modulation of pain perception was not due to a general change in attention. These data indicate that DCS significantly alters pain transmission in humans. Nevertheless, the relatively small reduction in clinical pain (less than 30%) must be weighed against the invasive nature of electrode implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Marchand
- Centre de Recherche en Sciences Neurologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Que.Canada Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Que.Canada Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Que.Canada Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, Que.Canada
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Abstract
Sixty patients with spinal cord stimulators implanted for intractable pain lasting up to 50 years were followed for up to nine years. Forty seven per cent derived significant benefit, 23% modest benefit, 20% experienced no effect and 6.7% were made worse. Two were made worse after initial benefit. Complications, indications and factors relevant to the mode of action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Simpson
- Department of Neurosurgery, London Hospital, Whitechapel, UK
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Linderoth B, Fedorcsak I, Meyerson BA. Is vasodilatation following dorsal column stimulation mediated by antidromic activation of small diameter afferents? ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENTUM 1989; 46:99-101. [PMID: 2773688 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-9029-6_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It is well-known that high intensity electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves and dorsal root fibres causes vasodilatation. However, the mechanisms underlying the vasodilatory effect of stimulation applied to the dorsal columns (DCS), with an intensity insufficient to recruit small diameter, high threshold fibres are virtually unknown. The present project was planned to elucidate underlying neural mechanisms. Albino rats, anaesthetized, paralyzed and artificially ventilated were used. Electrical stimulation with different parameters was applied to various sites of the exposed spinal cord, root fibres and peripheral nerves. In some experiments the spinal cord, root fibres or peripheral nerves were transected. Peripheral blood flow was recorded using laser Doppler technique. With stimulation of the lower thoracic region at low intensity substantially increased blood flow in the ipsilateral hind paw. The compound action potentials from the gural nerve displayed only components from low threshold, rapidly conducting fibres without detectable late components. Transection of the spinal cord above the stimulation site did not affect the blood flow changes. Also low intensity stimulation of the proximal part of a sectioned dorsal root resulted in a substantial rise in peripheral blood flow, whereas the same intensity proved ineffective when applied to the distal stump. High intensity stimulation of the distal stump not unexpectedly, caused a major increase in blood flow. The findings in the present study implicate the importance of a central circuit for the effect, whereas antidromic activation of primary afferents seems to be a less likely explanation. Possibly, stimulation induces a transitory inhibition of sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone, though activation of sympathetic vasodilatory efferents cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Linderoth
- Department of Neurosurgery, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Guru K, Mailis A, Ashby P, Vanderlinden G. Postsynaptic potentials in motoneurons caused by spinal cord stimulation in humans. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY AND CLINICAL NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 1987; 66:275-80. [PMID: 2434311 DOI: 10.1016/0013-4694(87)90076-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Epidural spinal cord stimulation (SCS) causes facilitation and/or inhibition of spinal motoneurons many segments below the level of the cathode. On the assumption that a spinal cord pathway is activated by the cathode the conduction velocity of the fiber system responsible for the facilitation of soleus motoneurons was estimated to be between 21.5 and 27 m/sec. It is clear that SCS in man can generate postsynaptic potentials in spinal neurons and thus is capable of modifying transmission in spinal segmental pathways.
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Gybels J, Kupers R. Central and peripheral electrical stimulation of the nervous system in the treatment of chronic pain. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENTUM 1987; 38:64-75. [PMID: 3307317 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6975-9_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gybels
- Kliniek voor Neurologie en Neurochirurgie, Universitair Ziekenhuis Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
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