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Al-Ghazawi M, Salameh H, Amo-Afful S, Khasawneh S, Ghanem R. An In-Depth Look Into the Epidemiological and Etiological Aspects of Prostate Cancer: A Literature Review. Cureus 2023; 15:e48252. [PMID: 38054148 PMCID: PMC10694784 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.48252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer among men worldwide, and it represents a substantial worldwide health issue, primarily impacting men as they grow older. Understanding its epidemiology and etiology is crucial for crafting efficient preventive measures and enhancing treatment results. The epidemiology of this disease provides valuable insights into its prevalence and distribution. Age is a critical factor, with the risk of prostate cancer increasing with advancing years. Incidence rates are notably higher in developed countries, suggesting a role for lifestyle and environmental factors. Furthermore, there are significant racial and geographical disparities in prostate cancer incidence, with African-American men experiencing both a higher incidence and more aggressive forms of the disease. On the other hand, hormones, especially testosterone and its conversion to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), contribute to prostate cell growth and, potentially, cancer. Genetics also plays a pivotal role, with certain gene mutations, like Breast Cancer gene 1 & 2 (BRCA1 and BRCA2), elevating risk. Dietary habits and lifestyle choices influence susceptibility, with diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in saturated fats linked to higher risk. Chronic inflammation, often tied to prostatitis, may further increase susceptibility to prostate cancer. This review article explores the complex realm of prostate cancer, providing insights into its occurrence, factors that elevate risks, and the fundamental factors that play a role in its emergence and how we can prevent it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munir Al-Ghazawi
- Urology, Barts Health National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, GBR
| | - Hamza Salameh
- Orthopedics, North Devon District Hospital, Barnstaple, GBR
| | | | | | - Rami Ghanem
- Urology, King Hussein Cancer Center, Amman, JOR
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Discovery of BRCA1/BRCA2 Founder Variants by Haplotype Analysis. Cancer Genet 2022; 266-267:19-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergen.2022.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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King B, McHugh J, Snape K. A Case-Based Clinical Approach to the Investigation, Management and Screening of Families with BRCA2 Related Prostate Cancer. APPLICATION OF CLINICAL GENETICS 2021; 14:255-266. [PMID: 34295175 PMCID: PMC8290889 DOI: 10.2147/tacg.s261737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
BRCA2 is the most commonly implicated DNA damage repair gene associated with inherited prostate cancer. BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer typically presents at a younger age, is more poorly differentiated, and is associated with worse survival outcomes than non-BRCA2 associated prostate cancer. Despite these unfavourable prognostic implications, poly-ADP ribose polymerase inhibitors and platinum-based chemotherapy have been identified as potent targeted therapeutic agents towards BRCA1/2 deficient cancer cells. This review article explores the literature surrounding BRCA2-related prostate cancer through a familial clinical scenario. The investigation, diagnosis and management of BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer will be explored, alongside the implications of the identification of a germline pathogenic BRCA2 variant within a family, cascade screening and prostate cancer surveillance in unaffected male BRCA2 carriers. A greater understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of DNA damage repair gene deficient prostate cancer, coupled with new treatment paradigms and widened access to both somatic and germline genetic analysis for prostate cancer patients and their families will hopefully enable the robust implementation of high quality evidence-based clinical pathways for both the management and identification of BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer and improved screening, early detection and prevention strategies for individuals at increased genetic risk of prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley King
- Institute of Medical and Biomedical Education, St. George's, University of London, London, UK
| | - Jana McHugh
- Department of Oncogenomics, Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Katie Snape
- Department of Clinical Genetics, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Cortesi L, Domati F, Guida A, Marchi I, Toss A, Barbieri E, Marcheselli L, Venturelli M, Piana S, Cirilli C, Federico M. BRCA mutation rate and characteristics of prostate tumor in breast and ovarian cancer families: analysis of 6,591 Italian pedigrees. Cancer Biol Med 2021; 18:j.issn.2095-3941.2020.0481. [PMID: 33710808 PMCID: PMC8185862 DOI: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2020.0481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE As prostate cancer (PrC) shows a BRCA mutation rate as high as 30%, it becomes crucial to find the optimal selection criteria for genetic testing. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the BRCA mutation rate in families with PrC associated with breast and/or ovarian cancers; secondary aims were to compare the characteristics of families and BRCA-related PrC outcome among BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers. METHODS Following the Modena criteria for the BRCA test, we evaluated the mutation rate in families with breast and/or ovarian cancer with a Gleason score ≥7 PrCs, by testing breast or ovarian cases and inferring the mutation in the prostate cases. The characteristics of families and BRCA-related PrC outcomes were measured using the chi-square (χ2) test and Kaplan-Meier methods, respectively. RESULTS Among 6,591 families, 580 (8.8%) with a Gleason score ≥ 7 PrCs were identified, of which 332 (57.2%) met the Modena selection criteria for BRCA testing. Overall, 215 breast or ovarian cancer probands (64.8%) were tested, of which 41 resulted positive for BRCA and one for CHEK2 genes (19.5%). No statistically significant differences were found in BRCA-related PrC prognosis and in the characteristics of families among BRCA1, BRCA2 and non-tested patients. Ten of 23 (44%) mutations in the BRCA2 gene fell in the prostate cancer cluster region (PCCR) at the 3´ terminal of the 7914 codon. CONCLUSIONS It appears the Modena criteria are very useful for BRCA testing selection in families with breast and/or ovarian cancer and PrC. A trend toward a worse prognosis has been found in BRCA2 carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cortesi
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Federica Domati
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Annalisa Guida
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Isabella Marchi
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Angela Toss
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Elena Barbieri
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Luigi Marcheselli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Marta Venturelli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
| | - Simonetta Piana
- Pathology Unit, Azienda USL Reggio Emilia, IRCCS, Reggio Emilia 42123, Italy
| | - Claudia Cirilli
- Modena Cancer Registry, Public Health Department, AUSL Modena 41126, Italy
| | - Massimo Federico
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & Adults, Division of Medical Oncology, University Hospital of Modena, Modena 41124, Italy
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Ren ZJ, Cao DH, Zhang Q, Ren PW, Liu LR, Wei Q, Wei WR, Dong Q. First-degree family history of breast cancer is associated with prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cancer 2019; 19:871. [PMID: 31477094 PMCID: PMC6720429 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-019-6055-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The relationship between first-degree family history of female breast cancer and prostate cancer risk in the general population remains unclear. We performed a meta-analysis to determine the association between first-degree family history of female breast cancer and prostate cancer risk. Methods Databases, including MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science, were searched for all associated studies that evaluated associations between first-degree family history of female breast cancer and prostate cancer risk up to December 31, 2018. Information on study characteristics and outcomes were extracted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement and Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines. The quality of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. Results Eighteen studies involving 17,004,892 individuals were included in the meta-analysis. Compared with no family history of female breast cancer, history of female breast cancer in first-degree relatives was associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer [relative risk (RR) 1.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.12–1.25] with moderate-quality evidence. A history of breast cancer in mothers only (RR 1.19, 95% CI 1.10–1.28) and sisters only (RR 1.71, 95% CI 1.43–2.04) was associated with increased prostate cancer risk with moderate-quality evidence. However, a family history of breast cancer in daughters only was not associated with prostate cancer incidence (RR 1.74, 95% CI 0.74–4.12) with moderate-quality evidence. A family history of female breast cancer in first-degree relatives was associated with an 18% increased risk of lethal prostate cancer (95% CI 1.04–1.34) with low-quality evidence. Conclusions This review demonstrates that men with a family history of female breast cancer in first-degree relatives had an increased risk of prostate cancer, including risk of lethal prostate cancer. These findings may guide screening, earlier detection, and treatment of men with a family history of female breast cancer in first-degree relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Ju Ren
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - De-Hong Cao
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China.,State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qin Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng-Wei Ren
- Department of Evidence-Based Medicine and Clinical Epidemiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liang-Ren Liu
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Wu-Ran Wei
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qiang Dong
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 37, Guo Xue Road, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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Mukendi AM, Van Den Berg E, Pather S, Padayachee RS. Metachronous or synchronous male breast and prostate cancers a duality to lookout for. F1000Res 2019; 7:1825. [PMID: 31431822 PMCID: PMC6619383 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.16997.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Breast cancer is well known as the stereotypical women's cancer, and prostate cancer represents the well-known stereotypical male counterpart. While prostate cancer carries the potential to metastasize to the breast, the synchronous or metachronous co-occurrence of primary breast and primary prostate cancers is quite unusual. Prostate cancer in men of African descent may have its own behaviour with regards to its relationship with male breast cancer.
Case presentation:
Case 1: A 64 year old male presented to Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital (CHBAH) with a 2 years history of a painless left breast lump. A core biopsy was done and confirmed breast carcinoma. Tamoxifen was started but, due to disease progression, he underwent left modified radical mastectomy followed by chemotherapy. Prostate biopsy was done for raised Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) and suspicious prostate on digital rectal examination. A prostatic adenocarcinoma was subsequently diagnosed with bone metastases on bone scan. He was started on Androgen deprivation therapy and followed up every 3 months. Case 2: A 68 year old male presented to CHBAH with a 1 year history of a painless right breast lump. A core biopsy confirmed breast cancer. Tamoxifen was started, followed by right modified radical mastectomy and chemotherapy for disease progression. A raised PSA and suspicious prostate on digital rectal examination prompted a prostate biopsy revealing a prostatic adenocarcinoma. Bone scan was negative for metastasis. He is currently on 3 monthly Androgen deprivation therapy and awaiting radiation. Conclusion: This clinical practice article not only presents this exceptionally rare duality but highlights that both cancers can coexist either as sporadic conditions, or as a result of genetic mutations. Thus, we suggest that men with prostate cancer be screened clinically, biochemically and genetically for breast cancer and vice versa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Mwamba Mukendi
- Department of Urology, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital / University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Eunice Van Den Berg
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Sugeshnee Pather
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Rushen Siva Padayachee
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
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Madia F, Worth A, Whelan M, Corvi R. Carcinogenicity assessment: Addressing the challenges of cancer and chemicals in the environment. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 128:417-429. [PMID: 31078876 PMCID: PMC6520474 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is a key public health concern, being the second leading cause of worldwide morbidity and mortality after cardiovascular diseases. At the global level, cancer prevalence, incidence and mortality rates are increasing. These trends are not fully explained by a growing and ageing population: with marked regional and socioeconomic disparities, lifestyle factors, the resources dedicated to preventive medicine, and the occupational and environmental control of hazardous chemicals all playing a role. While it is difficult to establish the contribution of chemical exposure to the societal burden of cancer, a number of measures can be taken to better assess the carcinogenic properties of chemicals and manage their risks. This paper discusses how these measures can be informed not only by the traditional data streams of regulatory toxicology, but also by using new toxicological assessment methods, along with indicators of public health status based on biomonitoring. These diverse evidence streams have the potential to form the basis of an integrated and more effective approach to cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Madia
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy.
| | - Andrew Worth
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy
| | - Maurice Whelan
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy
| | - Raffaella Corvi
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, Italy
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Mukendi AM, Van Den Berg E, Pather S, Padayachee RS. Metachronous or synchronous male breast and prostate cancers a duality to lookout for. F1000Res 2018; 7:1825. [PMID: 31431822 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.16997.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Breast cancer is well known as the stereotypical women's cancer, and prostate cancer represents the well-known stereotypical male counterpart. While prostate cancer carries the potential to metastasize to the breast, the synchronous or metachronous co-occurrence of primary breast and primary prostate cancers is quite unusual. Prostate cancer in men of African descent may have its own behaviour with regards to its relationship with male breast cancer. Case presentation: Case 1: A 64 year old male presented to Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital (CHBAH) with a 2 years history of a painless left breast lump. A core biopsy was done and confirmed breast carcinoma. Tamoxifen was started but, due to disease progression, he underwent left modified radical mastectomy followed by chemotherapy. Prostate biopsy was done for raised Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) and suspicious prostate on digital rectal examination. A prostatic adenocarcinoma was subsequently diagnosed with bone metastases on bone scan. He was started on Androgen deprivation therapy and followed up every 3 months. Case 2: A 68 year old male presented to CHBAH with a 1 year history of a painless right breast lump. A core biopsy confirmed breast cancer. Tamoxifen was started, followed by right modified radical mastectomy and chemotherapy for disease progression. A raised PSA and suspicious prostate on digital rectal examination prompted a prostate biopsy revealing a prostatic adenocarcinoma. Bone scan was negative for metastasis. He is currently on 3 monthly Androgen deprivation therapy and awaiting radiation. Conclusion: This clinical practice article not only presents this exceptionally rare duality but highlights that both cancers can coexist either as sporadic conditions, or as a result of genetic mutations. Thus, we suggest that men with prostate cancer be screened clinically, biochemically and genetically for breast cancer and vice versa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Mwamba Mukendi
- Department of Urology, Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital / University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Eunice Van Den Berg
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Sugeshnee Pather
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Rushen Siva Padayachee
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service/Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand., Johannesburg, South Africa
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García-Perdomo HA, Zapata-Copete JA, Sánchez A. Una mirada global y actualizada del cáncer de próstata. REVISTA DE LA FACULTAD DE MEDICINA 2018. [DOI: 10.15446/revfacmed.v66n3.65770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Introducción. El cáncer de próstata es una patología importante en la salud pública y tiene alto impacto mundial. El conocimiento y manejo de esta enfermedad debe ser del dominio de todo médico general y especialista que tenga a cargo pacientes que la padezcan.Objetivo. Obtener una visión actualizada de la epidemiología, los factores de riesgo, la clasificación, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento del cáncer de próstata.Materiales y métodos. Se realizó una búsqueda en las bases de datos Embase y MEDLINE desde enero del 2000 hasta marzo del 2017 mediante la cual se hizo un recorrido a través de las condiciones de riesgo, tamizaje, diagnóstico, nuevos biomarcadores y tratamiento del cáncer de próstata.Resultados. Factores genéticos y medioambientales son foco de estudio en la actualidad. La sospecha diagnóstica del cáncer de próstata sigue siendo con el antígeno específico prostático y el tacto rectal y su diagnóstico se debe hacer con la biopsia de próstata. Se han hecho cambios importantes en cuanto a la clasificación y tratamiento de los pacientes con esta enfermedad.Conclusión. Existe mucha investigación en curso y por venir sobre la prevención, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de esta condición tan importante, relevante y pertinente para los hombres alrededor del mundo.
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