1
|
Muñoz JP, Soto-Jiménez D, Calaf GM. DCTPP1 Expression as a Predictor of Chemotherapy Response in Luminal A Breast Cancer Patients. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1732. [PMID: 39200195 PMCID: PMC11351553 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12081732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BRCA) remains a significant global health challenge due to its prevalence and lethality, exacerbated by the development of resistance to conventional therapies. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning chemoresistance is crucial for improving therapeutic outcomes. Human deoxycytidine triphosphate pyrophosphatase 1 (DCTPP1) has emerged as a key player in various cancers, including BRCA. DCTPP1, involved in nucleotide metabolism and maintenance of genomic stability, has been linked to cancer cell proliferation, survival, and drug resistance. This study evaluates the role of DCTPP1 in BRCA prognosis and chemotherapy response. Data from the Cancer Genome Atlas Program (TCGA), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repositories, analyzed using GEPIA and Kaplan-Meier Plotter, indicate that high DCTPP1 expression correlates with poorer overall survival and increased resistance to chemotherapy in BRCA patients. Further analysis reveals that DCTPP1 gene expression is up-regulated in non-responders to chemotherapy, particularly in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive, luminal A subtype patients, with significant predictive power. Additionally, in vitro studies show that DCTPP1 gene expression increases in response to 5-fluorouracil and doxorubicin treatments in luminal A BRCA cell lines, suggesting a hypothetical role in chemoresistance. These findings highlight DCTPP1 as a potential biomarker for predicting chemotherapy response and as a therapeutic target to enhance chemotherapy efficacy in BRCA patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan P. Muñoz
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000007, Chile
| | - Diego Soto-Jiménez
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000007, Chile
| | - Gloria M. Calaf
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000000, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang Y, Chen X, Chen Q, Liu T, Wu Y, Huang L, Chen Y. Expression of human dCTP pyrophosphatase 1 (DCTPP1) and its association with cisplatin resistance characteristics in ovarian cancer. J Cell Mol Med 2024; 28:e18371. [PMID: 38686496 PMCID: PMC11058668 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.18371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin (DDP) resistance is a major challenge in treating ovarian cancer patients. A recently discovered enzyme called dCTP pyrophosphatase 1 (DCTPP1) has been implicated in regulating cancer characteristics, including drug responses. In this study, we aimed to understand the role of DCTPP1 in cancer progression and cisplatin response. Using publicly available databases, we analysed the expression and clinical significance of DCTPP1 in ovarian cancer. Our bioinformatics analysis confirmed that DCTPP1 is significantly overexpressed in ovarian cancer and is closely associated with tumour progression and poor prognosis after cisplatin treatment. We also found that DCTPP1 located in oxidoreductase complex and may be involved in various biological processes related to cisplatin resistance, including pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism, the P53 signalling pathway and cell cycle signalling pathways. We observed higher expression of DCTPP1 in cisplatin-resistant cells (SKOV3/DDP) and samples compared to their sensitive counterparts. Additionally, we found that DCTPP1 expression was only enhanced in SKOV3/S cells when treated with cisplatin, indicating different expression patterns of DCTPP1 in cisplatin-sensitive and cisplatin-resistant cancer cells. Our study further supports the notion that cisplatin induces intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and triggers cancer cell death through excessive oxidative stress. Knocking out DCTPP1 reversed the drug resistance of ovarian cancer cells by enhancing the intracellular antioxidant stress response and accumulating ROS. Based on our research findings, we conclude that DCTPP1 has prognostic value for ovarian cancer patients, and targeting DCTPP1 may be clinically significant in overcoming cisplatin resistance in ovarian cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology center, Nanfang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
- School of medical laboratory and BiotechnologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Xiangyun Chen
- School of medical laboratory and BiotechnologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Qiduan Chen
- Obstetrics and Gynecology center, Nanfang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Tiancai Liu
- School of medical laboratory and BiotechnologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Yingsong Wu
- School of medical laboratory and BiotechnologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Liping Huang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology center, Nanfang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Yao Chen
- School of medical laboratory and BiotechnologySouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chen R, Zhu S, Zhao R, Liu W, Jin L, Ren X, He H. Targeting ferroptosis as a potential strategy to overcome the resistance of cisplatin in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1402514. [PMID: 38711989 PMCID: PMC11071065 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1402514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a crucial public health problem, accounting for approximately 2% of all cancers globally and 90% of oral malignancies over the world. Unfortunately, despite the achievements in surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy techniques over the past decades, OSCC patients still low 5-year survival rate. Cisplatin, a platinum-containing drug, serves as one of the first-line chemotherapeutic agents of OSCC. However, the resistance to cisplatin significantly limits the clinical practice and is a crucial factor in tumor recurrence and metastasis after conventional treatments. Ferroptosis is an iron-based form of cell death, which is initiated by the intracellular accumulation of lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Interestingly, cisplatin-resistant OSCC cells exhibit lower level of ROS and lipid peroxidation compared to sensitive cells. The reduced ferroptosis in cisplatin resistance cells indicates the potential relationship between cisplatin resistance and ferroptosis, which is proved by recent studies showing that in colorectal cancer cells. However, the modulation pathway of ferroptosis reversing cisplatin resistance in OSCC cells still remains unclear. This article aims to concisely summarize the molecular mechanisms and evaluate the relationship between ferroptosis and cisplatin resistance OSCC cells, thereby providing novel strategies for overcoming cisplatin resistance and developing new therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rongkun Chen
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shuyu Zhu
- Department of Oral Implantology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Ruoyu Zhao
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Wang Liu
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Luxin Jin
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaobin Ren
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Hongbing He
- Department of Periodontology, Kunming Medical University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lin Y, Huang Z, Zhang B, Yang H, Yang S. Construction and Analysis of a Mitochondrial Metabolism-Related Prognostic Model for Breast Cancer to Evaluate Survival and Immunotherapy. J Membr Biol 2024; 257:63-78. [PMID: 38441572 DOI: 10.1007/s00232-024-00308-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
As one of the most prevalent malignancies among women, breast cancer (BC) is tightly linked to metabolic dysfunction. However, the correlation between mitochondrial metabolism-related genes (MMRGs) and BC remains unclear. The training and validation datasets for BC were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases, respectively. MMRG-related data were obtained from the Molecular Signatures Database. A risk score prognostic model incorporating MMRGs was established based on univariate, LASSO, and multivariate Cox regression analyses. Independent factors affecting BC prognosis were identified through regression analysis and presented in a nomogram. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis was employed to assess the immune levels of high-risk (HR) and low-risk (LR) groups. The sensitivity of BC patients in the two groups to common anti-tumor drugs was evaluated by utilizing the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer database. 12 MMRGs significantly associated with survival were selected from 1234 MMRGs. A 12-gene risk score prognostic model was built. In the multivariate regression analysis incorporating classical clinical factors, the MMRG-related risk score remained an independent prognostic factor. As revealed by tumor immune microenvironment analysis, the LR group with higher survival rates had elevated immune levels. The drug sensitivity results unmasked that the LR group demonstrated higher sensitivity to Irinotecan, Nilotinib, and Oxaliplatin, while the HR group demonstrated higher sensitivity to Lapatinib. The development of MMRG characteristics provides a comprehensive understanding of mitochondrial metabolism in BC, aiding in the prediction of prognosis and tumor microenvironment, and offering promising therapeutic choices for BC patients with different MMRG risk scores.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Lin
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, No. 34, North Zhongshan Road, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Zhongxin Huang
- Pathology Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Baogen Zhang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, No. 34, North Zhongshan Road, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Hanhui Yang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, No. 34, North Zhongshan Road, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Shu Yang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, No. 34, North Zhongshan Road, Quanzhou, 362000, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li T, Chen Z, Wang Z, Lu J, Chen D. Combined signature of N7-methylguanosine regulators with their related genes and the tumor microenvironment: a prognostic and therapeutic biomarker for breast cancer. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1260195. [PMID: 37868988 PMCID: PMC10585266 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1260195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Identifying predictive markers for breast cancer (BC) prognosis and immunotherapeutic responses remains challenging. Recent findings indicate that N7-methylguanosine (m7G) modification and the tumor microenvironment (TME) are critical for BC tumorigenesis and metastasis, suggesting that integrating m7G modifications and TME cell characteristics could improve the predictive accuracy for prognosis and immunotherapeutic responses. Methods We utilized bulk RNA-sequencing data from The Cancer Genome Atlas Breast Cancer Cohort and the GSE42568 and GSE146558 datasets to identify BC-specific m7G-modification regulators and associated genes. We used multiple m7G databases and RNA interference to validate the relationships between BC-specific m7G-modification regulators (METTL1 and WDR4) and related genes. Single-cell RNA-sequencing data from GSE176078 confirmed the association between m7G modifications and TME cells. We constructed an m7G-TME classifier, validated the results using an independent BC cohort (GSE20685; n = 327), investigated the clinical significance of BC-specific m7G-modifying regulators by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis, and performed tissue-microarray assays on 192 BC samples. Results Immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR results indicated that METTL1 and WDR4 overexpression in BC correlated with poor patient prognosis. Moreover, single-cell analysis revealed relationships between m7G modification and TME cells, indicating their potential as indicators of BC prognosis and treatment responses. The m7G-TME classifier enabled patient subgrouping and revealed significantly better survival and treatment responses in the m7Glow+TMEhigh group. Significant differences in tumor biological functions and immunophenotypes occurred among the different subgroups. Conclusions The m7G-TME classifier offers a promising tool for predicting prognosis and immunotherapeutic responses in BC, which could support personalized therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingjun Li
- The School of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Breast Surgery, Quanzhou First Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| | - Zhishan Chen
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Nan’an Hospital, Quanzhou, China
| | - Zhitang Wang
- The School of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Breast Surgery, Quanzhou First Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Lu
- The School of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Breast Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Putian University, Putian, China
| | - Debo Chen
- The School of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Breast Surgery, Quanzhou First Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Niu P, Zhao W, Wang Q, Duan J, Zhu J, Fu H, Wu Y, Zheng X, Zhang D, Ge C. Toll-like Receptor Agonist CBLB502 Protects Against Cisplatin-induced Liver and Kidney Damage in Mice. In Vivo 2023; 37:2044-2056. [PMID: 37652484 PMCID: PMC10500535 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.13302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM CBLB502, a Toll-like receptor-5 agonist derived from Salmonella flagellin, exerts protective roles against irradiation and chemical drugs in mammalian tissues and stimulates tissue regeneration. This study aimed to investigate whether CBLB502 can protect against liver and kidney damage induced by the chemotherapeutic drug cisplatin (CDDP) and the underlying mechanism of the protective effect. MATERIALS AND METHODS Mice were pretreated with CBLB502 [0.2 mg/kg, intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection] 0.5 h prior to administration of CDDP (20 mg/kg, i.p. injection), and analyses of the liver and kidney indices, blood biochemistry, and histopathology were performed. RESULTS Pretreatment with CBLB502 alleviated CDDP-induced liver and kidney damage. RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis indicated that CDDP induced a similar damage-promoting gene regulation pattern in the liver and kidney. CBLB502 protected against liver and kidney damage only after CDDP treatment primarily via different pathways. However, some CBLB502-regulated genes were common between the liver and kidney, including those involved in blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, hemostasis, apoptotic regulation, NF-kappaB signaling, and response to lipopolysaccharide, suggesting a general protective effect by CBLB502. CONCLUSION Our data provide insights into the protective mechanism of CBLB502 against CDDP-induced tissue damage in the liver and kidney and might provide a basis for future studies on functional genes and regulatory mechanisms that mediate protection against chemoradiotherapy-induced damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengzhen Niu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Wenyu Zhao
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Qiong Wang
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
- Graduate School of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, P.R. China
| | - Junzhao Duan
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Hanjiang Fu
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yongge Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Xiaofei Zheng
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Daguang Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Changhui Ge
- Department of Experimental Hematology and Biochemistry, Beijing Key Laboratory for Radiobiology, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China;
- Graduate School of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Construction and Validation of a Prognostic Model Based on mRNAsi-Related Genes in Breast Cancer. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2022; 2022:6532591. [PMID: 36267313 PMCID: PMC9578885 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6532591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Breast cancer is a big threat to the women across the world with substantial morbidity and mortality. The pressing matter of our study is to establish a prognostic gene model for breast cancer based on mRNAsi for predicting patient's prognostic survival. Methods From The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases, we downloaded the expression profiles of genes in breast cancer. On the basis of one-class logistic regression (OCLR) machine learning algorithm, mRNAsi of samples was calculated. Kaplan-Meier (K-M) and Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) tests were utilized for the assessment of the connection between mRNAsi and clinicopathological variables of the samples. As for the analysis on the correlation between mRNAsi and immune infiltration, ESTIMATE combined with Spearman test was employed. The weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) network was established by utilizing the differentially expressed genes in breast cancer, and the target module with the most significant correlation with mRNAsi was screened. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were conducted to figure out the biological functions of the target module. As for the construction of the prognostic model, univariate, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed on genes in the module. The single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) and tumor mutational burden were employed for the analysis on immune infiltration and gene mutations in the high- and low-risk groups. As for the analysis on whether this model had the prognostic value, the nomogram and calibration curves of risk scores and clinical characteristics were drawn. Results Nine mRNAsi-related genes (CFB, MAL2, PSME2, MRPL13, HMGB3, DCTPP1, SHCBP1, SLC35A2, and EVA1B) comprised the prognostic model. According to the results of ssGSEA and gene mutation analysis, differences were shown in immune cell infiltration and gene mutation frequency between the high- and low-risk groups. Conclusion Nine mRNAsi-related genes screened in our research can be considered as the biomarkers to predict breast cancer patients' prognoses, and this model has a potential relationship with individual somatic gene mutations and immune regulation. This study can offer new insight into the development of diagnostic and clinical treatment strategies for breast cancer.
Collapse
|
8
|
Stieg DC, Wang Y, Liu LZ, Jiang BH. ROS and miRNA Dysregulation in Ovarian Cancer Development, Angiogenesis and Therapeutic Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126702. [PMID: 35743145 PMCID: PMC9223852 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The diverse repertoires of cellular mechanisms that progress certain cancer types are being uncovered by recent research and leading to more effective treatment options. Ovarian cancer (OC) is among the most difficult cancers to treat. OC has limited treatment options, especially for patients diagnosed with late-stage OC. The dysregulation of miRNAs in OC plays a significant role in tumorigenesis through the alteration of a multitude of molecular processes. The development of OC can also be due to the utilization of endogenously derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) by activating signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT and MAPK. Both miRNAs and ROS are involved in regulating OC angiogenesis through mediating multiple angiogenic factors such as hypoxia-induced factor (HIF-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The NAPDH oxidase subunit NOX4 plays an important role in inducing endogenous ROS production in OC. This review will discuss several important miRNAs, NOX4, and ROS, which contribute to therapeutic resistance in OC, highlighting the effective therapeutic potential of OC through these mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David C. Stieg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; (D.C.S.); (L.-Z.L.)
| | - Yifang Wang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy & Cell Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA;
| | - Ling-Zhi Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; (D.C.S.); (L.-Z.L.)
| | - Bing-Hua Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy & Cell Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA;
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|