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Reference Genes across Nine Brain Areas of Wild Type and Prader-Willi Syndrome Mice: Assessing Differences in Igfbp7, Pcsk1, Nhlh2 and Nlgn3 Expression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158729. [PMID: 35955861 PMCID: PMC9369261 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prader−Willi syndrome (PWS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the deletion or inactivation of paternally expressed imprinted genes at the chromosomal region 15q11−q13. The PWS-critical region (PWScr) harbors tandemly repeated non-protein coding IPW-A exons hosting the intronic SNORD116 snoRNA gene array that is predominantly expressed in brain. Paternal deletion of PWScr is associated with key PWS symptoms in humans and growth retardation in mice (PWScr model). Dysregulation of the hypothalamic−pituitary axis (HPA) is thought to be causally involved in the PWS phenotype. Here we performed a comprehensive reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis across nine different brain regions of wild-type (WT) and PWScr mice to identify stably expressed reference genes. Four methods (Delta Ct, BestKeeper, Normfinder and Genorm) were applied to rank 11 selected reference gene candidates according to their expression stability. The resulting panel consists of the top three most stably expressed genes suitable for gene-expression profiling and comparative transcriptome analysis of WT and/or PWScr mouse brain regions. Using these reference genes, we revealed significant differences in the expression patterns of Igfbp7, Nlgn3 and three HPA associated genes: Pcsk1, Pcsk2 and Nhlh2 across investigated brain regions of wild-type and PWScr mice. Our results raise a reasonable doubt on the involvement of the Snord116 in posttranscriptional regulation of Nlgn3 and Nhlh2 genes. We provide a valuable tool for expression analysis of specific genes across different areas of the mouse brain and for comparative investigation of PWScr mouse models to discover and verify different regulatory pathways affecting this complex disorder.
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van Rhijn JR, Shi Y, Bormann M, Mossink B, Frega M, Recaioglu H, Hakobjan M, Klein Gunnewiek T, Schoenmaker C, Palmer E, Faivre L, Kittel-Schneider S, Schubert D, Brunner H, Franke B, Nadif Kasri N. Brunner syndrome associated MAOA mutations result in NMDAR hyperfunction and increased network activity in human dopaminergic neurons. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 163:105587. [PMID: 34923109 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Monoamine neurotransmitter abundance affects motor control, emotion, and cognitive function and is regulated by monoamine oxidases. Among these, Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) catalyzes the degradation of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin into their inactive metabolites. Loss-of-function mutations in the X-linked MAOA gene have been associated with Brunner syndrome, which is characterized by various forms of impulsivity, maladaptive externalizing behavior, and mild intellectual disability. Impaired MAOA activity in individuals with Brunner syndrome results in bioamine aberration, but it is currently unknown how this affects neuronal function, specifically in dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Here we generated human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived DA neurons from three individuals with Brunner syndrome carrying different mutations and characterized neuronal properties at the single cell and neuronal network level in vitro. DA neurons of Brunner syndrome patients showed reduced synaptic density but exhibited hyperactive network activity. Intrinsic functional properties and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR)-mediated synaptic transmission were not affected in DA neurons of individuals with Brunner syndrome. Instead, we show that the neuronal network hyperactivity is mediated by upregulation of the GRIN2A and GRIN2B subunits of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), resulting in increased NMDAR-mediated currents. By correcting a MAOA missense mutation with CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing we normalized GRIN2A and GRIN2B expression, NMDAR function and neuronal population activity to control levels. Our data suggest that MAOA mutations in Brunner syndrome increase the activity of dopaminergic neurons through upregulation of NMDAR function, which may contribute to the etiology of Brunner syndrome associated phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon-Ruben van Rhijn
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Maren Bormann
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Britt Mossink
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Monica Frega
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical neurophysiology, University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Hatice Recaioglu
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Marina Hakobjan
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Teun Klein Gunnewiek
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Anatomy, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Chantal Schoenmaker
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Elizabeth Palmer
- Genetics of Learning Disability Service, Hunter Genetics, Waratah, NSW, Australia; School of Women's and Children's Health, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - Laurence Faivre
- Centre de Référence Anomalies du développement et Syndromes malformatifs and FHU TRANSLAD, Hôpital d'Enfants, Dijon, France; INSERM UMR1231 GAD, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
| | - Sarah Kittel-Schneider
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Dirk Schubert
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Han Brunner
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Genetics, MUMC+, GROW School of Oncology and Developmental Biology, and MHeNS School of Neuroscience and Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Barbara Franke
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Nael Nadif Kasri
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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de Andrade Silva SC, da Silva AI, Braz GRF, da Silva Pedroza AA, de Lemos MDT, Sellitti DF, Lagranha C. Overfeeding during development induces temporally-dependent changes in areas controlling food intake in the brains of male Wistar rats. Life Sci 2021; 285:119951. [PMID: 34516994 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS We sought to evaluate the effects of overfeeding during lactation on the feeding behavior and expression of specific regulatory genes in brain areas associated with food intake in 22- and 60-day old male rats. METHODS We evaluated body weight, food intake of standard and palatable diet, and mRNA expression of dopamine receptor D1 (DDR1), dopamine receptor (DDR2), melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R), the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), neuropeptide Y (NPY), agouti-related protein (AGRP), proopiomelanocortin (POMC), cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) transporter (SERT), 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1B (5-HT1B), 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2C receptor (5-HT2C), Clock (CLOK), cryptochrome protein 1 (Cry1) and period circadian protein homolog 2 (Per2) in the striatum, hypothalamus and brainstem of male rats at post-natal days (PND) 22 and 60. KEY FINDINGS Overfeeding resulted in significantly increased body weight through PND60, and a 2-fold increase in palatable food intake at PND22, but not at PND60. We observed significant increases in DDR1, DDR2, and MC4R gene expression in the striatum and brainstem and POMC/CART in the hypothalamus of the OF group at PND22 that were reversed by PND60. Hypothalamic levels of 5-HT1B, 5-HT2C and NPY/AGRP on the other hand were decreased at PND22 and increased at PND60 in OF animals. Clock genes were unaffected by OF at PND22, but were significantly elevated at PND60. SIGNIFICANCE Overfeeding during early development of the rat brain results in obesity and altered feeding behavior in early adulthood. The altered behavior might be the consequence of the changes in food intake and reward gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aline Isabel da Silva
- Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Science Graduate Program, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco -UFPE-Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Glauber Rudá Feitoza Braz
- Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Science Graduate Program, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco -UFPE-Recife, PE, Brazil
| | | | | | - Donald F Sellitti
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Claudia Lagranha
- Neuropsychiatry and Behavior Science Graduate Program, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco -UFPE-Recife, PE, Brazil; Laboratory of Biochemistry and Exercise Biochemistry, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - UFPE, Recife, PE, Brazil.
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Sturny M, Anguenot L, Costa-Fraga FP, Bragina ME, Lima AM, da Silva RF, Fraga-Silva RA, Stergiopulos N. Apelin-13 Protects Corpus Cavernosum Against Fibrosis Induced by High-Fat Diet in an MMP-Dependent Mechanism. J Sex Med 2021; 18:875-888. [PMID: 33863684 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An increased fibrosis of the corpora cavernosa is a prevalent process that underlies most cases of erectile dysfunction. Apelin, an endogenous circulating peptide, has been documented as an important effector on cardiovascular homeostasis, controlling vascular function and reducing fibrosis in multiple pathological conditions. Recently, initial studies have shown that Apelin, acting through the APJ receptor, also modulates penile erection, however, the role of this system on penile structure and intracorporal collagen remodeling has not been investigated yet. AIMS Here we sought to investigate the effect of chronic Apelin treatment on the corpus cavernosum structure of hyperchOlesterolemic mice. METHODS Apolipoprotein gene-deleted (ApoE-/-) mice were fed with a Western diet for 11 weeks and received Apelin-13 (2 mg/kg/day) or vehicle during the last 3 weeks. Penile samples were obtained for histological and biochemical analyses to assess the intracorporal collagen content and key proteins expression. Furthermore, the effect of Apelin-13 was evaluated in cultured NIH3T3 mouse fibroblasts stimulated with TGF-β. OUTCOME Local expression of Apelin-13 in mouse corpus cavernosum and its protective effect against fibrosis. RESULTS Apelin and APJ receptor were expressed (gene and protein) within the corpus cavernosum of ApoE-/- mice, indicating a local modulation of the Apelin system. Interestingly, 3 weeks of Apelin-13 treatment strongly reduced intracavernosal collagen content. In addition, Apelin-13 enhanced total matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in the mice penis, which was associated with an increased protein expression of MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-8, and MMP-9, while tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase were unaltered. These beneficial actions were not associated with changes in nNOS or eNOS protein expression, intracavernosal reactive oxygen species content, or atherosclerotic plaque deposition. Additionally, in cultured fibroblast, Apelin-13 inhibited TGF-β-induced fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation and collagen production, possibly through the activation of ERK1/2 kinase. CLINICAL TRANSLATION These results point out Apelin/APJ system as a potential target to treat intracavernosal fibrosis-related disorders. STRENGTH & LIMITATIONS These results provide the first evidence of the Apelin system's positive role on erectile tissue structure/remodeling. Nevertheless, additional functional study addressing erectile response would bring extended validation regarding the relevance of such effect. CONCLUSION These results suggest a local modulation of the Apelin system within the corpus cavernosum. Remarkably, Apelin-13 reduced intracavernosal fibrosis in hypercholesterolemic mice by: (i) enhancing MMPs expression and activity; and (ii) inhibiting fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblast. Altogether, these results suggest an essential protective role of Apelin, indicating Apelin/APJ system as a promising candidate for the development of fibrosis-associated erectile dysfunction treatments. Sturny M, Anguenot L Costa-Fraga FP, et al. Apelin-13 Protects Corpus Cavernosum Against Fibrosis Induced by High-Fat Diet in an MMP-Dependent Mechanism. J Sex Med 2021;18:875-888.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Sturny
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Léa Anguenot
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fabiana P Costa-Fraga
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maiia E Bragina
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Augusto Martins Lima
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rafaela F da Silva
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A Fraga-Silva
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Nikolaos Stergiopulos
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Grossemy S, Chan PPY, Doran PM. Electrical stimulation of cell growth and neurogenesis using conductive and nonconductive microfibrous scaffolds. Integr Biol (Camb) 2019; 11:264-279. [DOI: 10.1093/intbio/zyz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The effect of exogenous electrical stimulation on cell viability, attachment, growth, and neurogenesis was examined using PC12 cells in microfibrous viscose-rayon scaffolds immersed in culture medium. The scaffolds were applied either in their nonconductive state or after coating the fibres with 200 nm of gold to give a scaffold sheet resistivity of (13 ± 1.3) Ω square−1. The cells were treated for 12 days using direct current electrical stimulation of 2 h per day. No cytotoxic effects were observed when up to 500 mV (8.3 mV mm−1) was applied to the scaffolds without gold, or when up to 100 mV (1.7 mV mm−1) was applied to the scaffolds with gold. Compared with unstimulated cells, whereas electrical stimulation significantly enhanced cell growth and attachment in the nonconductive scaffolds without gold, similar effects were not found for the conductive scaffolds with gold. Neural differentiation in the presence of nerve growth factor was improved by electrical stimulation in both scaffolds; however, neurite development and the expression of key differentiation markers were greater in the nonconductive scaffolds without gold than in the scaffolds with gold. Application of the same current to scaffolds with and without gold led to much higher levels of neurogenesis in the scaffolds without gold. This work demonstrates that substantial benefits in terms of cell growth and neural differentiation can be obtained using electric fields exerted across nonconductive microfibrous scaffolds, and that this approach to electrical stimulation can be more effective than when the stimulus is applied to cells on conductive scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Grossemy
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Peggy P Y Chan
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Pauline M Doran
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Australia
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Disturbed Glucose Metabolism in Rat Neurons Exposed to Cerebrospinal Fluid Obtained from Multiple Sclerosis Subjects. Brain Sci 2017; 8:brainsci8010001. [PMID: 29267205 PMCID: PMC5789332 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Axonal damage is widely accepted as a major cause of permanent functional disability in Multiple Sclerosis (MS). In relapsing-remitting MS, there is a possibility of remyelination by myelin producing cells and restoration of neurological function. The purpose of this study was to delineate the pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning axonal injury through hitherto unknown factors present in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that may regulate axonal damage, remyelinate the axon and make functional recovery possible. We employed primary cultures of rat unmyelinated cerebellar granule neurons and treated them with CSF obtained from MS and Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) patients. We performed microarray gene expression profiling to study changes in gene expression in treated neurons as compared to controls. Additionally, we determined the influence of gene-gene interaction upon the whole metabolic network in our experimental conditions using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) program. Our findings revealed the downregulated expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism in MS-derived CSF-treated neurons and upregulated expression of genes in NMO-derived CSF-treated neurons. We conclude that factors in the CSF of these patients caused a perturbation in metabolic gene(s) expression and suggest that MS appears to be linked with metabolic deformity.
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Mathur D, Riffo-Campos AL, Castillo J, Haines JD, Vidaurre OG, Zhang F, Coret-Ferrer F, Casaccia P, Casanova B, Lopez-Rodas G. Bioenergetic Failure in Rat Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells Treated with Cerebrospinal Fluid Derived from Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:209. [PMID: 28775680 PMCID: PMC5517784 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) subtype, the patient’s brain itself is capable of repairing the damage, remyelinating the axon and recovering the neurological function. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is in close proximity with brain parenchyma and contains a host of proteins and other molecules, which influence the cellular physiology, that may balance damage and repair of neurons and glial cells. The purpose of this study was to determine the pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning myelin repair in distinct clinical forms of MS and neuromyelitis optica (NMO) patients by studying the effect of diseased CSF on glucose metabolism and ATP synthesis. A cellular model with primary cultures of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) from rat cerebrum was employed, and cells were treated with CSF from distinct clinical forms of MS, NMO patients and neurological controls. Prior to comprehending mechanisms underlying myelin repair, we determine the best stably expressed reference genes in our experimental condition to accurately normalize our target mRNA transcripts. The GeNorm and NormFinder algorithms showed that mitochondrial ribosomal protein (Mrpl19), hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (Hprt), microglobulin β2 (B2m), and transferrin receptor (Tfrc) were identified as the best reference genes in OPCs treated with MS subjects and were used for normalizing gene transcripts. The main findings on microarray gene expression profiling analysis on CSF treated OPCs cells revealed a disturbed carbohydrate metabolism and ATP synthesis in MS and NMO derived CSF treated OPCs. In addition, using STRING program, we investigate whether gene–gene interaction affected the whole network in our experimental conditions. Our findings revealed downregulated expression of genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, and that glucose metabolism impairment and reduced ATP availability for cellular damage repair clearly differentiate more benign forms from the most aggressive forms and worst prognosis in MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali Mathur
- Department of Functional Biology, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, INCLIVA Biomedical Research Institute, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain
| | - Angela L Riffo-Campos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, INCLIVA Biomedical Research Institute, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain.,Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of La FronteraTemuco, Chile
| | - Josefa Castillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, INCLIVA Biomedical Research Institute, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain
| | - Jeffery D Haines
- Department of Neuroscience, Genetics and Genomics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New YorkNY, United States
| | - Oscar G Vidaurre
- Department of Neuroscience, Genetics and Genomics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New YorkNY, United States
| | - Fan Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Genetics and Genomics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New YorkNY, United States
| | | | - Patrizia Casaccia
- Department of Neuroscience, Genetics and Genomics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New YorkNY, United States
| | - Bonaventura Casanova
- CSUR-Esclerosi Múltiple, Unitat Mixta d'Esclerosi Múltiple i Neurorregeneració del'IIS-La Fe, Hospital Universitari i Politécnic La FeValencia, Spain
| | - Gerardo Lopez-Rodas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, INCLIVA Biomedical Research Institute, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain
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