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Douglas SM, Kitchin PJ, Jackson AJ, Barrett BT, Little JA. Athletes' Perspectives of the Classification System in Para Alpine Skiing for Those With Visual Impairment. Adapt Phys Activ Q 2024; 41:402-419. [PMID: 38710491 DOI: 10.1123/apaq.2023-0076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
This study explored the classification experiences and views of Para Alpine skiers with visual impairment. Data from 11 interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis to generate three themes: Suitability-The skiers questioned the suitability of the visual measurements, testing environment, and the information they received regarding classification; Exclusivity-Skiers felt certain aspects of the system remain exclusive due to the restrictions of sport classes and lack of the athlete voice; and (Dis)trust-Skiers felt distrust in those implementing the system and in other athletes due to intentional misrepresentation. Speculation surrounding this resulted in the skiers' feeling doubt in their own classification. While there is not a "one size fits all" approach to classification, understanding skiers' experiences can be a vital first step and will help to guide future research into the evolution of this sport's classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Douglas
- Centre for Optometry and Vision Science, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom
| | - Paul J Kitchin
- School of Sport, Ulster University, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | | | - Brendan T Barrett
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Julie-Anne Little
- Centre for Optometry and Vision Science, Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom
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Zenk F, Willmott AGB, Fortin-Guichard D, Austick K, Mann DL, Winckler C, Allen PM. Profile of Athletes With a Vision Impairment: Exploring Demographics and Ocular Pathologies of Athletes in Three Paralympic Sports. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2024; 103:172-180. [PMID: 37026871 DOI: 10.1097/phm.0000000000002255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to explore the profile of athletes with a vision impairment who compete in three Paralympic sports (goalball, vision impairment judo, and blind football). DESIGN Descriptive and association analyses of the vision impairment athletes' profile were conducted. RESULTS The typical athlete profile was a male (65.1%), aged 26-34 yrs (39.7%), from Europe (38.8%), representing a country with a high income (46.1%), and was diagnosed with a retinal-related ocular pathology (38.9%). In all three sports, the ages of the athletes were similar. In goalball, most athletes were from Europe, represented countries with a high income, and were diagnosed with retinal-, globe-, or neurological-related pathologies. In vision impairment judo, the majority of athletes were from Asia, represented countries with an upper middle income, and were diagnosed with retinal-, global-, or neurological-related pathologies. In blind football, most athletes were from Europe, represented countries with an upper middle income, and were diagnosed with retinal-, neurological-related ocular pathologies, or glaucoma. CONCLUSIONS The homogeneity of the athletes' profile suggests that an effort is needed to target other parts of the vision impairment population to take part in vision impairment sports. Differences in the athletes' profiles across the sports provide information that may be useful for sport-specific talent identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Zenk
- From the Vision and Hearing Sciences Research Centre, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom (FZ, KA, PMA); Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences (CCSES), School of Psychology and Sport Science, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom (AGBW); Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands (DF-G, DLM); and Department of Human Movement Sciences, São Paulo Federal University, Santos, Brazil (CW)
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Runswick OR, Rawlinson A, Allen PM, Sharpe BT, Pocock C, Datson N, Birch P, Bruce R, Mann DL. The effects of simulated vision impairment on performance in football. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:1410-1422. [PMID: 37877884 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2273093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Footballers with vision impairment (VI) are eligible to compete in the Para sport if they meet a minimum impairment criteria (MIC) based on measures of their visual acuity (VA) and/or visual field. Despite the requirements of the International Paralympic Committee Athlete Classification Code that each sport uses an evidence-based classification system, VI football continues to use a medical-based system that lacks evidence to demonstrate the relationship between impairment and performance in the sport. The aim of this study was to systematically simulate vision loss to establish the minimum level of impairment that would affect performance in futsal. Nineteen skilled sighted players completed tests of individual technical skill and anticipation performance under six levels of simulated blur that decreased both VA and contrast sensitivity (CS). VA needed to be reduced to a level of acuity that represents worse vision than that currently used for inclusion in VI football before meaningful decreases in performance were observed. CS did not have a clear effect on football performance. These findings produce the first evidence for the minimum impairment criteria in VI football and suggest a more severe degree of impairment may be required for the MIC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver R Runswick
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College, London, UK
| | - Alexander Rawlinson
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
- Institute of Psychology, Business and Human Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Peter M Allen
- Vision and Eye Research Centre, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Benjamin T Sharpe
- Institute of Psychology, Business and Human Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Chris Pocock
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Naomi Datson
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Phil Birch
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Richard Bruce
- Centre for Applied Human and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Life Science and Medicine, King's College, London, UK
| | - David L Mann
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam (iBBA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Martin AM, Ryu D, Jackson RC, Mann DL. Expert Views on Evidence-Based Classification for Goalball: A Delphi Study. Adapt Phys Activ Q 2023; 40:257-279. [PMID: 36649723 DOI: 10.1123/apaq.2022-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Para sport classification aims to minimize the impact of impairments on the outcome of competition. The International Paralympic Committee requires classification systems to be evidence based and sport specific, yet the sport of goalball uses a structure that is not supported by evidence demonstrating its legitimacy for competition. This study aimed to establish expert opinions on how a sport-specific system of classification should be structured in the sport of goalball. Using a three-round Delphi survey, 30 international experts expressed their views across topics linked to goalball classification. Participants were divided as to whether the current system fulfills the aim to minimize the impact of impairment on competition. Most felt that less impairment should be required to compete but that the one-class structure should remain. Experts identified measures of visual function that should be considered and 15 core components of individual goalball performance. Findings constitute a crucial first step toward evidence-based classification in goalball.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Martin
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough,United Kingdom
| | - Donghyun Ryu
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough,United Kingdom
| | - Robin C Jackson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough,United Kingdom
| | - David L Mann
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, IPC Research and Development Center for the Classification of Athletes With Vision Impairment Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam,the Netherlands
- Movement Sciences and Institute of Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam,the Netherlands
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Stalin A, Dalton K. Classification in Para skiing: do better performing skiers have better visual functions? Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1046318. [PMID: 37139306 PMCID: PMC10149750 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1046318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Currently, Paralympic skiers with vision impairment are allocated to classes based only on their better eye static visual acuity and visual field diameter. These studies were conducted to investigate whether a broad range of visual functions were different among groups of skiers with different levels of skiing performance. Methods Static and dynamic visual acuities, contrast sensitivity, light and glare sensitivity, glare recovery, motion perception, and visual field were assessed binocularly in elite Para nordic (n = 26) and Para alpine skiers (n = 15) at 3 international Paralympic events. Skiing performances were calculated using modified skiing points systems based on skiers' raw race times. Clusters of skiers with similar performances were identified in each sport, and their vision and non-vision variables were compared. Results Skiers in the best performing Para nordic clusters (1 and 2) had better static visual acuities (p = 0.041) and larger visual fields (p = 0.004) compared to cluster 3. In Para alpine slalom (p = 0.019), giant slalom (p = 0.019), and Super-G (p = 0.039) the average static visual acuities among the better performing clusters were significantly better compared to the worst performing cluster. In slalom, the cluster with better performance also had a significantly larger visual field (p = 0.038). In downhill, the better performance cluster demonstrated better dynamic visual acuity (p = 0.029). Discussion Clusters with better performing skiers appear to have better visual function in both sports. The results of this study would suggest that Para nordic and Para alpine skiers with light perception or no light perception vision should be in one class and that the skiers with quantifiable static VA should be in a different class.
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Hynes NJ, Beukes EW, Hawkes R, Bennett HA, Hamilton C, Jayabalan P, Allen PM. Evidence-based classification in golf for athletes with a vision impairment: A Delphi study. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2022; 42:1193-1203. [PMID: 36129728 PMCID: PMC9547903 DOI: 10.1111/opo.13049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Vision-impaired (VI) golf is a global para-sport currently played under several different classification systems under different bodies. This study aimed to gather expert opinion to determine whether the current classification systems are fit for the purpose intended and to identify any particular issues where VI impacts the game of golf for the disabled (G4D). A panel of 20 participants with expertise in G4D took part in a three-round Delphi study. The panel agreed that the current classification system(s) for VI golf did not or only partially fulfilled the aim to minimise the impact of VI on the outcome of competition and that there should be one, internationally recognised, classification system. It was agreed that other metrics of VI, in addition to the measurement of visual acuity (VA), need to be considered. Intentional misrepresentation of VI was identified as a cause for concern. The panel agreed that the current classification system does not fully achieve its purpose. Any changes that are made to these classification systems need to be evidence based specific to VI golf. Further research is required to determine how measures of VI affect golfing performance and whether other metrics other than VA are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niall J. Hynes
- Centre for Vision across the Life SpanSchool of Applied SciencesUniversity of HuddersfieldHuddersfieldUK
| | - Eldre W. Beukes
- Vision and Hearing Sciences Research Centre, School of Psychology and Sports SciencesAnglia Ruskin UniversityCambridgeUK
| | | | | | | | - Prakash Jayabalan
- Shirley Ryan AbilityLabChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Northwestern Feinberg School of MedicineChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Peter M. Allen
- Vision and Hearing Sciences Research Centre, School of Psychology and Sports SciencesAnglia Ruskin UniversityCambridgeUK
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Fortin-Guichard D, Ravensbergen HJC, Krabben K, Allen PM, Mann DL. The Relationship Between Visual Function and Performance in Para Swimming. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:20. [PMID: 35122208 PMCID: PMC8816996 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00412-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paralympic swimmers with vision impairment (VI) currently compete in one of the three classes depending on their visual acuity (VA) and/or visual field. However, there is no evidence to suggest that a three-class system is the most legitimate approach for classification in swimming, or that the tests of VA and visual field are the most suitable. An evidence-based approach is required to establish the relationship between visual function and performance in the sport. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish the relationship between visual function and performance in VI Para swimming. The swimming performance of 45 elite VI swimmers was evaluated during international competitions by measuring the total race time, start time, clean swim velocity, ability to swim in a straight line, turn time, and finish time. Visual function was measured using a test battery that included VA, contrast sensitivity, light sensitivity, depth perception, visual search, and motion perception. RESULTS Results revealed that VA was the best predictor of total race time (r = 0.40, p < 0.01), though the relationship was not linear. Decision tree analysis suggested that only two classes were necessary for legitimate competition in VI swimming, with a single cut-off between 2.6 and 3.5 logMAR. No further significant association remained between visual function and performance in either of the two resulting classes (all |rs|< 0.11 and ps > 0.54). CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that legitimate competition in VI swimming requires one class for partially sighted and another for functionally blind athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Fortin-Guichard
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - H J C Ravensbergen
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kai Krabben
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter M Allen
- Vision and Hearing Sciences Research Centre, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - David L Mann
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences and Institute Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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