Measurement of Motivation States for Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior: Development and Validation of the CRAVE Scale

Kavalactones support motivation to move during intensive training in males preparing for military special operations forces

BACKGROUND

Military special operators, elite athletes, and others requiring uninterrupted optimal performance currently lack options for sleep and mood support without performance-inhibiting effects. Kavalactones, derived from the root of the kava plant (Piper methysticum Forst), have been shown to elevate mood and wellbeing by producing a feeling of relaxation without addiction or cognitive impairment.

METHODS

In this placebo-controlled, crossover study (NCT05381025), we investigated the effects of 2 weeks of kavalactones use on cortisol (diurnal salivary), sleep (RSQ-W; Restorative Sleep Questionnaire, Weekly), mood (DASS-21; Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21), and motivation state to expend (Move) or conserve (Rest) energy (CRAVE; Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure, Right Now) in a cohort of 15 healthy, physically fit young males engaged in a rigorous, two-a-day preparation class for special operations forces qualification.

RESULTS

Cortisol, sleep, and mood were within normal, healthy parameters in this cohort at baseline. This remained unchanged with kavalactones use with no significant findings of clinical interest. However, a statistically similar, positive slope for within-group Move scores was seen in both groups during kavalactones loading (first group Move slope 2.25, second group Move slope 3.29, p = 0.299). This trend was seen regardless of order and with no apparent effects on the Rest metric (all p ≥ 0.05). Moreover, a significant between-group difference appeared after 1 week of kavalactones use in the first phase (p = 0.044) and persisted through the end of the first loading period (p = 0.022). Following the 10-day washout, this between-groups divergence remained significant (p = 0.038) but was reversed by 1 week after the crossover (p = 0.072), with Move scores once again statistically similar between groups and compared to baseline at study end. Furthermore, the group taking kavalactones first never experienced a significant decrease in Move motivation state (lowest mean score 21.0, highest 28.6, all p ≥ 0.05), while the group receiving kavalactones in the last 2 weeks of the study had Move scores that were statistically lower than baseline (lowest mean score 8.6, highest 25.9, all p ≤ 0.05) at all time points but the last (p = 0.063) after 2 weeks of kavalactones exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

We report a novel finding that kavalactones may support performance by maintaining or rescuing the desire to expend energy in the context of significant physical and mental strain in well-conditioned individuals, even in a context of already normal cortisol, sleep, and mood.

Association between long-term sedentary behavior and depressive symptoms in U.S. adults

The study aimed to investigate the association between long-term sedentary behavior (LTSB) and depressive symptoms within a representative sample of the U.S. adult population. Data from NHANES 2017-2018 were used, encompassing information on demographics, depressive symptoms, physical activity (PA), and LTSB. Depressive symptoms were identified using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), with "depressive symptoms" defined as a PHQ-9 score of ≥ 5, and "moderate to severe depressive symptoms (MSDS)" defined as a PHQ-9 score of ≥ 10. PA and LTSB were assessed through the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, where LTSB was interpreted as sedentary time ≥ 600 min. Restricted Cubic Spline (RCS) curves were utilized to observe potential nonlinear relationships. Binary Logistic regressions were conducted to analyze the associations. A total of 4728 participants (mean age 51.00 ± 17.49 years, 2310 males and 2418 females) were included in the study. Among these individuals, 1194 (25.25%) displayed depressive symptoms, with 417 (8.82%) exhibiting MSDS. RCS curves displayed increased risk of depressive symptoms with prolonged sedentary duration. Logistic regression models indicated significant associations between LTSB and depressive symptoms (OR 1.398, 95% CI 1.098-1.780), and LTSB and MSDS (OR 1.567, 95% CI 1.125-2.183), after adjusting for covariates. These findings suggest that LTSB may act as a potential risk factor for both depressive symptoms and MSDS in the studied population.

Guidelines for assessment of affect-related constructs

Research on affect-related constructs as determinants of health behavior is increasing. The Affect and Health Behavior Framework (AHBF) provides a schematic structure to label, organize, and integrate affect-related constructs. To further facilitate research and theory development in health behavior science, the purpose of the present paper is to provide a critical review and guidelines for assessment of the affect-related constructs in the AHBF. The paper is organized based on the categories of constructs in the AHBF: Affective response to health behavior, incidental affect, affect processing, and affectively charged motivation. Future research should work toward parsing constructs where possible as well as identifying overlap. Researchers are advised to consider conceptual underpinnings and methodological nuances when assessing affect-related constructs in order to build a cumulative science of affective determinants of health behavior.

The State Urge to be Physically Active-Questionnaire (SUPA-Q): Development and validation of a state measure of activity urges in patients with eating disorders

OBJECTIVE

Many people, including patients with eating disorders (EDs), experience an increased urge for physical activity. "Trait"-like activity in patients with EDs is assessed by existing questionnaires, but there are few clinically validated assessments of a "state" urge to be physically active. Here, we developed and validated the State Urge to be Physically Active-Questionnaire (SUPA-Q).

METHODS

After developing and piloting the items, N = 126 patients with EDs (mostly anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) took part in our mixed-longitudinal validation study with one primary assessment for all patients and a secondary assessment for a subsample of patients. Cronbach's α and split-half-methods served as measures of consistency and reliability. Correlations with other questionnaires were used to determine convergent and divergent validity, and confirmatory factor analysis was used for investigating factorial validity. We used paired-samples t-tests for repeated assessments to investigate change sensitivity.

RESULTS

We found the SUPA-Q to be highly consistent, and reliable and to demonstrate convergent, divergent, and factorial validity. The comparison of SUPA-Q scores from repeated assessments within a subsample of patients demonstrated the questionnaire's change sensitivity, Cohen's d = 0.48. Moreover, an increase in SUPA-Q scores was associated with a less positive mood, more anxiety, more body dissatisfaction, more tenseness, less feelings of control, and more stress.

DISCUSSION

The newly developed SUPA-Q may help to accentuate the necessity to evaluate and address the acute urge to engage in physical activity in patients with EDs in clinical practice and ultimately support tailoring treatments to patients' unique symptom patterns. The questionnaire is available at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/G2YBC.

The CRAVE and ARGE scales for motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism: Brazilian Portuguese translation and single-item versions

Motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism potentially vary from moment to moment. The CRAVE scale (Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) was developed to assess transient wants and desires to move. Three studies were conducted with the aims of: (1) translating and validating the scale in Brazilian Portuguese, (2) examining changes with exercise, and (3) determining the best single-item for Move and Rest subscales for English and Portuguese. In Study 1, six bilingual speakers translated the scale into Brazilian Portuguese [named Anseios por Repouso e Gastos com Energia (ARGE)]. The ARGE had good content validity coefficients across three dimensions (0.89-0.91), as determined by three independent, bilingual referees. 1,168 participants (mean age = 30.6, SD = 12.2) from across Brazil completed an online version of the ARGE. An Exploratory Factor Analysis found two clear, oblique, and inversely related factors (Move and Rest; GFI = 1.00, RMSR = 0.03). Reliability was good (Cronbach α's: 0.93 and 0.92). Two models of the scale (10 vs. 13 items) were compared with Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The previously validated version using 10 scored items (GFI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.07, RMSR = 0.02) outperformed the version scored with 13 items. State anxiety and exercise behavior had small associations with Move and Rest (-0.20 to 0.26). In Study 2, ARGE Move scores had high correspondence post-session (ICC = 0.83) for 9 women performing short Sprint Interval Training (sSIT; 6 sessions). Large, but non-significant, effects were detected for changes in motivation states with sSIT. In Study 3, IRT analyses found that for the United States sample, "be physically active" and "be still" were the most representative items for Move and Rest, respectively, while for the Brazil sample they were "exert my muscles" and "be a couch potato." Overall, it was found that: (A) the ARGE scale demonstrated good psychometric properties, (B) the original scoring (with 10 items) resulted in the best model, (C) it had small associations with exercise behavior, and (D) the subscales were reduced to single items that varied by country, indicating potential cultural differences in the concept of motivation states for physical activity.

Altered motivation states for physical activity and 'appetite' for movement as compensatory mechanisms limiting the efficacy of exercise training for weight loss

Weight loss is a major motive for engaging in exercise, despite substantial evidence that exercise training results in compensatory responses that inhibit significant weight loss. According to the Laws of Thermodynamics and the CICO (Calories in, Calories out) model, increased exercise-induced energy expenditure (EE), in the absence of any compensatory increase in energy intake, should result in an energy deficit leading to reductions of body mass. However, the expected negative energy balance is met with both volitional and non-volitional (metabolic and behavioral) compensatory responses. A commonly reported compensatory response to exercise is increased food intake (i.e., Calories in) due to increased hunger, increased desire for certain foods, and/or changes in health beliefs. On the other side of the CICO model, exercise training can instigate compensatory reductions in EE that resist the maintenance of an energy deficit. This may be due to decreases in non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), increases in sedentary behavior, or alterations in sleep. Related to this EE compensation, the motivational states associated with the desire to be active tend to be overlooked when considering compensatory changes in non-exercise activity. For example, exercise-induced alterations in the wanting of physical activity could be a mechanism promoting compensatory reductions in EE. Thus, one's desires, urges or cravings for movement-also known as "motivation states" or "appetence for activity"-are thought to be proximal instigators of movement. Motivation states for activity may be influenced by genetic, metabolic, and psychological drives for activity (and inactivity), and such states are susceptible to fatigue-or reward-induced responses, which may account for reductions in NEAT in response to exercise training. Further, although the current data are limited, recent investigations have demonstrated that motivation states for physical activity are dampened by exercise and increase after periods of sedentarism. Collectively, this evidence points to additional compensatory mechanisms, associated with motivational states, by which impositions in exercise-induced changes in energy balance may be met with resistance, thus resulting in attenuated weight loss.

Motivation states to move, be physically active and sedentary vary like circadian rhythms and are associated with affect and arousal

Introduction

Motivation to be physically active and sedentary is a transient state that varies in response to previous behavior. It is not known: (a) if motivational states vary from morning to evening, (b) if they are related to feeling states (arousal/hedonic tone), and (c) whether they predict current behavior and intentions. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if motivation states vary across the day and in what pattern. Thirty adults from the United States were recruited from Amazon MTurk.

Methods

Participants completed 6 identical online surveys each day for 8 days beginning after waking and every 2-3 h thereafter until bedtime. Participants completed: (a) the CRAVE scale (Right now version) to measure motivation states for Move and Rest, (b) Feeling Scale, (c) Felt Arousal Scale, and (d) surveys about current movement behavior (e.g., currently sitting, standing, laying down) and intentions for exercise and sleep. Of these, 21 participants (mean age 37.7 y; 52.4% female) had complete and valid data.

Results

Visual inspection of data determined that: a) motivation states varied widely across the day, and b) most participants had a single wave cycle each day. Hierarchical linear modelling revealed that there were significant linear and quadratic time trends for both Move and Rest. Move peaked near 1500 h when Rest was at its nadir. Cosinor analysis determined that the functional waveform was circadian for Move for 81% of participants and 62% for Rest. Pleasure/displeasure and arousal independently predicted motivation states (all p's < .001), but arousal had an association twice as large. Eating, exercise and sleep behaviors, especially those over 2 h before assessment, predicted current motivation states. Move-motivation predicted current body position (e.g., laying down, sitting, walking) and intentions for exercise and sleep more consistently than rest, with the strongest prediction of behaviors planned for the next 30 min.

Discussion

While these data must be replicated with a larger sample, results suggest that motivation states to be active or sedentary have a circadian waveform for most people and influence future behavioral intentions. These novel results highlight the need to rethink the traditional approaches typically utilized to increase physical activity levels.

Humans have a basic physical and psychological need to move the body: Physical activity as a primary drive

Physical activity, while less necessary for survival in modern times, is still essential for thriving in life, and low levels of movement are related to numerous physical and mental health problems. However, we poorly understand why people move on a day-to-day basis and how to promote greater energy expenditure. Recently, there has been a turn to understand automatic processes with close examination of older theories of behavior. This has co-occurred with new developments in the study of non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). In this narrative review, it is hypothesized that psycho-physiological drive is important to understand movement in general and NEAT, specifically. Drive, in short, is a motivation state, characterized by arousal and felt tension, energizing the organism to acquire a basic need. Movement is a biological necessity, like food, water, and sleep, but varies across the lifespan and having the greatest impact before adolescence. Movement meets various criteria for a primary drive: (a) deprivation of it produces feelings of tension, such as an urge or craving, known as affectively-charged motivation states, and particularly the feelings of being antsy, restless, hyper or cooped up, (b) provision of the need quickly reduces tension - one can be satiated, and may even over-consume, (c) it can be provoked by qualities of the environment, (d) it is under homeostatic control, (e) there is an appetite (i.e., appetence) for movement but also aversion, and (f) it has a developmental time course. Evidence for drive has mainly come from children and populations with hyperkinetic disorders, such as those with anorexia nervosa, restless legs syndrome, and akathisia. It is also stimulated in conditions of deprivation, such as bed rest, quarantine, long flights, and physical restraint. It seems to be lacking in the hypokinetic disorders, such as depression and Parkinson's. Thus, drive is associated with displeasure and negative reinforcement, subsuming it within the theory of hedonic drive, but it may fit better within new paradigms, such as the WANT model (Wants and Aversions for Neuromuscular Tasks). Recently developed measurement tools, such as the CRAVE scale, may permit the earnest investigation of movement drive, satiation, and motivation states in humans.

Qualitative and quantitative evidence of motivation states for physical activity, exercise and being sedentary from university student focus groups

Motivation for physical activity and sedentary behaviors (e.g., desires, urges, wants, cravings) varies from moment to moment. According to the WANT model, these motivation states may be affectively-charged (e.g., felt as tension), particularly after periods of maximal exercise or extended rest. The purpose of this study was to examine postulates of the WANT model utilizing a mixed-methods approach. We hypothesized that: (1) qualitative evidence would emerge from interviews to support this model, and (2) motivation states would quantitatively change over the course of an interview period. Seventeen undergraduate students (mean age = 18.6y, 13 women) engaged in focus groups where 12 structured questions were presented. Participants completed the "right now" version of the CRAVE scale before and after interviews. Qualitative data were analyzed with content analysis. A total of 410 unique lower-order themes were classified and grouped into 43 higher order themes (HOTs). From HOTs, six super higher order themes (SHOTs) were designated: (1) wants and aversions, (2) change and stability, (3) autonomy and automaticity, (4) objectives and impulses, (5) restraining and propelling forces, and (6) stress and boredom. Participants stated that they experienced desires to move and rest, including during the interview, but these states changed rapidly and varied both randomly as well as systematically across periods of minutes to months. Some also described a total absence of desire or even aversion to move and rest. Of note, strong urges and cravings for movement, typically from conditions of deprivation (e.g., sudden withdrawal from exercise training) were associated with physical and mental manifestations, such as fidgeting and feeling restless. Urges were often consummated with behavior (e.g., exercise sessions, naps), which commonly resulted in satiation and subsequent drop in desire. Importantly, stress was frequently described as both an inhibitor and instigator of motivation states. CRAVE-Move increased pre-to-post interviews (p < .01). CRAVE-Rest demonstrated a trend to decline (p = .057). Overall, qualitative and quantitative data largely corroborated postulates of the WANT model, demonstrating that people experience wants and cravings to move and rest, and that these states appear to fluctuate significantly, especially in the context of stress, boredom, satiety, and deprivation.

Exploring the use of music to promote physical activity: From the viewpoint of psychological hedonism

Despite the global efforts to encourage people to regularly participate in physical activity (PA) at moderate-to-vigorous intensity, an inadequate number of adults and adolescents worldwide meet the recommended dose of PA. A major challenge to promoting PA is that sedentary or low-active people experience negative shifts in affective valence (feeling bad versus good) in response to moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA. Interestingly, empirical data indicate that listening to music during acute bouts of PA positively alters affective valence (feeling good versus bad), reduces perceived exertion, and improves physical performance and oxygen utilization efficiency. From the viewpoint of the ancient principle of psychological hedonism - humans have ultimate desires to obtain pleasure and avoid displeasure - we elaborate on three putative mechanisms underlying the affective and ergogenic effects of music on acute bouts of PA: (1) musical pleasure and reward, (2) rhythmic entrainment, and (3) sensory distraction from physical exertion. Given that a positive shift in affective valence during an acute bout of PA is associated with more PA in the future, an important question arises as to whether the affective effect of music on acute PA can be carried over to promote long-term PA. Although this research question seems intuitive, to our knowledge, it has been scarcely investigated. We propose a theoretical model of Music as an Affective Stimulant to Physical Activity (MASPA) to further explain the putative mechanisms underlying the use of music to promote long-term PA. We believe there have been important gaps in music-based interventions in terms of the rationale supporting various components of the intervention and the efficacy of these interventions to promote long-term PA. Our specification of relevant mechanisms and proposal of a new theoretical model may advance our understanding of the optimal use of music as an affective, ergogenic, and sensory stimulant for PA promotion. Future directions are suggested to address the gaps in the literature.

Examining whether affectively-charged motivations predict subsequent affective response during physical activity: An ecological momentary assessment study

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests positive affective response during physical activity increases the likelihood of engaging in and maintaining regular activity exercise in the future. Elucidating antecedents for a positive affective response may help identify intervention strategies to increase activity. Affectively-charged motivations (e.g., desires, urges, dreading) have been posited as proximal antecedents to physical activity but have yet to be examined in terms of their influence on affective response in real-world settings. The current study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine within-subject effects of pre-physical activity affectively-charged motivation on subsequent affective response during physical activity.

METHODS

Participants included 56 adults (M = 39.18 years, SD = 11.98; 67.86% female) who completed a 14-day smartphone-based EMA study. Prior to starting physical activity (time t), participants self-initiated an event-contingent EMA survey that assessed affectively-charged motivation for physical activity (i.e., rating scale from "dreading it" to "excited to do it"). EMA surveys prompted during subsequent physical activity (time t + 15 min) assessed affective response (i.e., feeling good-bad, energized-exhausted, thrilled-miserable, interested-bored, and relaxed-nervous). Multi-level linear regression models examined within-subject effects of pre- physical activity affectively-charged motivations on subsequent affective response during physical activity controlling for between-subjects effects of affectively-charged motivation, age, biological sex, time of day, and day of the week.

RESULTS

Overall, there were N = 304 physical activity occasions in the analysis (M = 5.43, SD = 3.97). When individuals reported more positive affectively-charged motivation for physical activity than usual before physical activity occasions, they reported feeling more energized (Estimate = 0.22, p < 0.001), good (Estimate = 0.25, p < 0.001), thrilled (Estimate = 0.12, p = 0.02), and interested (Estimate = 0.24, p < 0.001) during subsequent physical activity. Affectively-charged motivation was not associated with feeling more relaxed (Estimate = 0.11, p = 0.13) during subsequent physical activity.

CONCLUSION

Momentary affectively-charged motivations predicted more positive affective response during subsequent physical activity among active adults. Future research can explore potential sources of intraindividual differences in affectively-charged motivations and further examine these associations with future physical activity behavior. To improve positive affective responses, interventions may boost affectively-charged motivations through real-time mobile prompting in naturalistic settings.

Urges to Move and Other Motivation States for Physical Activity in Clinical and Healthy Populations: A Scoping Review Protocol

Motivation for bodily movement, physical activity and exercise varies from moment to moment. These motivation states may be “affectively-charged,” ranging from instances of lower tension (e.g., desires, wants) to higher tension (e.g., cravings and urges). Currently, it is not known how often these states have been investigated in clinical populations (e.g., eating disorders, exercise dependence/addiction, Restless Legs Syndrome, diabetes, obesity) vs. healthy populations (e.g., in studies of motor control; groove in music psychology). The objective of this scoping review protocol is to quantify the literature on motivation states, to determine what topical areas are represented in investigations of clinical and healthy populations, and to discover pertinent details, such as instrumentation, terminology, theories, and conceptual models, correlates and mechanisms of action. Iterative searches of scholarly databases will take place to determine which combination of search terms (e.g., “motivation states” and “physical activity”; “desire to be physically active,” etc.) captures the greatest number of relevant results. Studies will be included if motivation states for movement (e.g., desires, urges) are specifically measured or addressed. Studies will be excluded if referring to motivation as a trait. A charting data form was developed to scan all relevant documents for later data extraction. The primary outcome is simply the extent of the literature on the topic. Results will be stratified by population/condition. This scoping review will unify a diverse literature, which may result in the creation of unique models or paradigms that can be utilized to better understand motivation for bodily movement and exercise.