Paradoxical acceleration of dithiothreitol-induced aggregation of insulin in the presence of a chaperone

Effects of Molecular Crowding and Betaine on HSPB5 Interactions, with Target Proteins Differing in the Quaternary Structure and Aggregation Mechanism

The aggregation of intracellular proteins may be enhanced under stress. The expression of heat-shock proteins (HSPs) and the accumulation of osmolytes are among the cellular protective mechanisms in these conditions. In addition, one should remember that the cell environment is highly crowded. The antiaggregation activity of HSPB5 and the effect on it of either a crowding agent (polyethylene glycol (PEG)) or an osmolyte (betaine), or their mixture, were tested on the aggregation of two target proteins that differ in the order of aggregation with respect to the protein: thermal aggregation of glutamate dehydrogenase and DTT-induced aggregation of lysozyme. The kinetic analysis of the dynamic light-scattering data indicates that crowding can decrease the chaperone-like activity of HSPB5. Nonetheless, the analytical ultracentrifugation shows the protective effect of HSPB5, which retains protein aggregates in a soluble state. Overall, various additives may either improve or impair the antiaggregation activity of HSPB5 against different protein targets. The mixed crowding arising from the presence of PEG and 1 M betaine demonstrates an extraordinary effect on the oligomeric state of protein aggregates. The shift in the equilibrium of HSPB5 dynamic ensembles allows for the regulation of its antiaggregation activity. Crowding can modulate HSPB5 activity by affecting protein-protein interactions.

Relationship between the Structure and Chaperone Activity of Human αA-Crystallin after Its Modification with Diabetes-Associated Oxidative Agents and Protective Role of Antioxidant Compounds

The study was aimed to evaluate the impact of peroxynitrite (PON, oxidative stress agent in diabetes), methylglyoxal (MGO, diabetes-associated reactive carbonyl compound), and their simultaneous application on the structural and functional features of human αA-crystallin (αA-Cry) using various spectroscopy techniques. Additionally, the surface tension and oligomer size distribution of the treated and untreated protein were tested using tensiometric analysis and dynamic light scattering, respectively. Our results indicated that the reaction of PON and MGO with human αA-Cry leads to the formation of new chromophores, alterations in the secondary to quaternary protein structure, reduction in the size of protein oligomers, and significant enhancement in the chaperone activity of αA-Cry. To reverse the effects of the tested compounds, ascorbic acid and glutathione (main components of lens antioxidant defense system) were applied. As expected, the two antioxidant compounds significantly prevented formation of high molecular weight aggregates of αA-Cry (according to SDS-PAGE). Our results suggest that the lens antioxidant defense system, in particular, glutathione, may provide a strong protection against rapid incidence and progression of diabetic cataract by preventing the destructive reactions of highly reactive DM-associated metabolites.

FKBP22 from the psychrophilic bacterium Shewanella sp. SIB1 selectively binds to the reduced state of insulin to prevent its aggregation

FKBP22 of a psychrophilic bacterium, Shewanella sp. SIB1 (SIB1 FKBP22), is a member of peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) and consists of N- and C-domains responsible for chaperone-like and PPIase catalytic activities, respectively. The chaperone-like activity of SIB1 FKBP22 was previously evidenced by its ability to prevent dithiothreitol (DTT)-induced insulin aggregation. Nevertheless, the mechanism by which this protein inhibits the aggregation remains unclear. To address this, the binding affinity of SIB1 FKBP22 to the native or reduced states of insulin was examined using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The native and reduced states refer to insulin in the absence or DTT presence, respectively. The SPR sensorgram showed that SIB1 FKBP22 binds specifically to the reduced state of insulin, with a KD value of 37.31 ± 3.20 μM. This binding was facilitated by the N-domain, as indicated by the comparable KD values of the N-domain and SIB1 FKBP22. Meanwhile, the reduced state of insulin was found to have no affinity towards the C-domain. The KD value of SIB1 FKBP22 was slightly decreased by NaCl but was not severely affected by FK506, a specific FKBP inhibitor. Similarly, the prevention of DTT-induced aggregation by SIB1 FKBP22 was also modulated by the N-domain and was not affected by FK506. Further, the reduced and native states of insulin had no effect on the catalytic efficiency (kcat/KM) of SIB1 FKBP22 towards a peptide substrate. Nevertheless, the reduced state of insulin slightly reduced the catalytic efficiency towards refolding RNase T1, at up to 1.5-fold lower than in the absence of insulin. These results suggested that the binding event was mainly facilitated by hydrophobic interaction and was independent from its PPIase activity. Altogether, a possible mechanism by which SIB1 FKBP22 prevents DTT-induced insulin aggregation was proposed.

Anti-aggregation effect of Ascorbic Acid and Quercetin on aggregated Bovine Serum Albumin Induced by Dithiothreitol: Comparison of Turbidity and Soluble Protein Fraction Methods

Studies on the anti-aggregation of dithiothreitol (DTT) induced - protein is generally determined by the fraction soluble (non-aggregated) protein. While the turbidity method is commonly used in studies of anti-aggregation, in which protein is induced by heat, in this study, both methods are compared in observing the anti-aggregation activity of ascorbic acid and quercetin toward bovine serum albumin induced by DTT. The DTT is a reducing agent for protein disulfide bonds and capable of inducing protein aggregation at physiological pH and temperature. The work was performed by the formation of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) aggregates induced by DTT under physiological conditions, which are pH 7.4 and 37°C. The aggregated protein profile was observed using the turbidity method at the end of incubation and measuring the difference of concentration between the fraction of soluble protein before and after incubation. The measurement was carried out using a spectrophotometer UV-Vis. The results indicate that both methods show similar inhibition profiles. The potential inhibition of ascorbic acid (AA) toward BSA protein aggregation induced by DTT increased along with incubation time. While quercetin shows the highest inhibition at 12 hours but decreased at 18 hours, this study reveals that both methods can observe the anti-aggregation activity of ascorbic acid and quercetin.

Cellular Functions and Mechanisms of Action of Small Heat Shock Proteins

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) constitute a diverse chaperone family that shares the α-crystallin domain, which is flanked by variable, disordered N- and C-terminal extensions. sHsps act as the first line of cellular defense against protein unfolding stress. They form dynamic, large oligomers that represent inactive storage forms. Stress conditions cause a rapid increase in cellular sHsp levels and trigger conformational rearrangements, resulting in exposure of substrate-binding sites and sHsp activation. sHsps bind to early-unfolding intermediates of misfolding proteins in an ATP-independent manner and sequester them in sHsp/substrate complexes. Sequestration protects substrates from further uncontrolled aggregation and facilitates their refolding by ATP-dependent Hsp70-Hsp100 disaggregases. Some sHsps with particularly strong sequestrase activity, such as yeast Hsp42, are critical factors for forming large, microscopically visible deposition sites of misfolded proteins in vivo. These sites are organizing centers for triaging substrates to distinct quality control pathways, preferentially Hsp70-dependent refolding and selective autophagy.

Protective effects of carnosine on dehydroascorbate-induced structural alteration and opacity of lens crystallins: important implications of carnosine pleiotropic functions to combat cataractogenesis

The high level of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) in the lenticular tissue is an important risk factor for the development of age-related cataracts. In this study, the effects of DHA on structure and function of lens crystallins were studied in the presence of carnosine using gel mobility shift assay, different spectroscopic techniques, and lens culture analysis. The DHA-induced unfolding and aggregation of lens proteins were largely prevented by this endogenous dipeptide. The ability of carnosine to preserve native protein structure upon exposure to DHA suggests the essential role of this dipeptide in prevention of the senile cataract development. Although the DHA-modified α-crystallin was characterized by altered chaperone activity, functionality of this protein was significantly restored in the presence of carnosine. The increased proteolytic instability of DHA-modified lens proteins was also attenuated in the presence of carnosine. Furthermore, the assessment of lens culture suggested that DHA can induce significant lens opacity which can be prevented by carnosine. These observations can be explained by the pleiotropic functions of this endogenous and pharmaceutical compound, notably by its anti-glycation and anti-aggregation properties. In summary, our study suggests that carnosine may have therapeutic potential in preventing senile cataracts linked with the increased lenticular DHA generation, particularly under pathological conditions associated with the oxidative stress.

Nano-cage-mediated refolding of insulin by PEG-PE micelle

Insulin aggregation has pronounced pharmaceutical implications and biological importance. Deposition of insulin aggregates is associated with type II diabetes and instability of pharmaceutical formulations. We present in this study the renaturation effect of PEG-PE micelle on dithiothreitol (DTT)-denatured insulin revealed by techniques including turbidity assay, circular dichroism (CD), thioflavinT (ThT) binding assay, bis-ANS binding assay, agarose gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF MS. The obtained results show that PEG-PE micelle having a hydrophilic nano-cage-like structure in which with a negative charge layer, can capture DTT-induced insulin A and B chains, and block their hydrophobic interaction, thereby preventing aggregation. The reduced insulin A and B chain in the nano-cage are capable of recognizing each other and form the native insulin with yields of ∼30% as measured by hypoglycemic activity analysis in mice. The observed insulin refolding assisted by PEG-PE micelle may be applicable to other proteins.

Effect of crowding on several stages of protein aggregation in test systems in the presence of α-crystallin

Macromolecular crowding can facilitate protein-protein interactions in the cell, in particular aggregation processes. To characterize the anti-aggregation activity of chaperones under conditions mimicking the crowded environment in the cell, two basic test systems are used. Test systems of the first type are based on aggregation of target proteins undergoing unfolding under different factors. Dithithreitol-induced aggregation of α-lactalbumin is used as such a system. The increase in the duration of lag phase after the addition of the crowder (polyethylene glycol; PEG) to the system containing α-crystallin has been interpreted as a retardation of the stages that are the rate-limiting stages of the general process of aggregation (the nucleation stage and the stages of clusterization of nuclei). Test systems of the second type are based on aggregation of UV-irradiated proteins. Such test systems permit investigating the effects of different agents directly on the stages of aggregation of unfolded protein. UV-irradiated glycogen phosphorylase b (Phb) is used as a target protein. Analysis of the initial rate of aggregation after the addition of PEG at different points in time to the mixture of UV-irradiated Phb and α-crystallin allowed estimating the time of half-conversion for the structural rearrangement of the primary UV-irradiated Phb-α-crystallin complex.

Kinetic regime of dithiothreitol-induced aggregation of bovine serum albumin

A search for agents, which are capable of effectively suppressing protein aggregation, and elaboration of the appropriate test systems, are among important problems of modern biochemistry and biotechnology. One such test system is based on dithiothreitol (DTT)-induced aggregation of bovine serum albumin (BSA). Study of the kinetics of DTT-induced aggregation of BSA by asymmetric flow field flow fractionation showed that a decrease in the portion of the non-aggregated protein in time followed the exponential law, the rate constant of the first order remaining unchanged at varying protein concentration (0.1M Na-phosphate buffer, pH 7.0; 45 °C). The obtained results indicate that the rate-limiting stage of the general aggregation process is that of unfolding of the protein molecule. When studying the kinetics of DTT-induced aggregation of BSA by dynamic light scattering, we proposed to use parameter K(LS) as a measure of the initial rate of aggregation. Parameter K(LS) corresponds to the initial slope of the dependence of (I-I0)(0.5) on time (I0 and I are the initial and current values of the light scattering intensity, respectively). The K(LS) value has been applied to estimate anti-aggregation activity of chemical chaperones (arginine, its derivatives and proline).

Intermediates caught in the act: tracing insulin amyloid fibril formation in time by combined optical spectroscopy, light scattering, mass spectrometry and microscopy

Insulin under acidic conditions. PDB-Databank structure visualized with VMD.

Dissecting the functional role of the N-terminal domain of the human small heat shock protein HSPB6

HSPB6 is a member of the human small heat shock protein (sHSP) family, a conserved group of molecular chaperones that bind partially unfolded proteins and prevent them from aggregating. In vertebrate sHSPs the poorly structured N-terminal domain has been implicated in both chaperone activity and the formation of higher-order oligomers. These two functionally important properties are likely intertwined at the sequence level, complicating attempts to delineate the regions that define them. Differing from the prototypical α-crystallins human HSPB6 has been shown to only form dimers in solution making it more amendable to explore the determinants of chaperoning activity alone. Using a systematic and iterative deletion strategy, we have extensively investigated the role of the N-terminal domain on the chaperone activity of this sHSP. As determined by size-exclusion chromatography and small-angle X-ray scattering, most mutants had a dimeric structure closely resembling that of wild-type HSPB6. The chaperone-like activity was tested using three different substrates, whereby no single truncation, except for complete removal of the N-terminal domain, showed full loss of activity, pointing to the presence of multiple sites for binding unfolding proteins. Intriguingly, we found that the stretch encompassing residues 31 to 35, which is nearly fully conserved across vertebrate sHSPs, acts as a negative regulator of activity, as its deletion greatly enhanced chaperoning capability. Further single point mutational analysis revealed an interplay between the highly conserved residues Q31 and F33 in fine-tuning its function.

Relationship between the initial rate of protein aggregation and the lag period for amorphous aggregation

Lag period is an inherent characteristic of the kinetic curves registered for protein aggregation. The appearance of a lag period is connected with the nucleation stage and the stages of the formation of folding or unfolding intermediates prone to aggregation (for example, the stage of protein unfolding under stress conditions). Discovering the kinetic regularities essential for elucidation of the protein aggregation mechanism comprises deducing the relationship between the lag period and aggregation rate. Fändrich proposed the following equation connecting the duration of the lag phase (tlag) and the aggregate growth rate (kg) in the amyloid fibrillation: kg=const/tlag. To establish the relationship between the initial rate of protein aggregation (v) and the lag period (t0) in the case of amorphous aggregation, the kinetics of dithithreitol-induced aggregation of holo-α-lactalbumin from bovine milk was studied (0.1M Na-phosphate buffer, pH 6.8; 37°C). The order of aggregation with respect to protein (n) was calculated from the dependence of the initial rate of protein aggregation on the α-lactalbumin concentration (n=5.3). The following equation connecting v and t0 has been proposed: v(1/n)=const/(t0-t0,lim), where t0,lim is the limiting value of t0 at high concentrations of the protein.

Quantification of anti-aggregation activity of chaperones: a test-system based on dithiothreitol-induced aggregation of bovine serum albumin

The methodology for quantification of the anti-aggregation activity of protein and chemical chaperones has been elaborated. The applicability of this methodology was demonstrated using a test-system based on dithiothreitol-induced aggregation of bovine serum albumin at 45°C as an example. Methods for calculating the initial rate of bovine serum albumin aggregation (v agg) have been discussed. The comparison of the dependences of v agg on concentrations of intact and cross-linked α-crystallin allowed us to make a conclusion that a non-linear character of the dependence of v agg on concentration of intact α-crystallin was due to the dynamic mobility of the quaternary structure of α-crystallin and polydispersity of the α-crystallin-target protein complexes. To characterize the anti-aggregation activity of the chemical chaperones (arginine, arginine ethyl ester, arginine amide and proline), the semi-saturation concentration [L]0.5 was used. Among the chemical chaperones studied, arginine ethyl ester and arginine amide reveal the highest anti-aggregation activity ([L]0.5 = 53 and 58 mM, respectively).

L-arginine induces protein aggregation and transformation of supramolecular structures of the aggregates

Protein misfolding, self-assembly, and aggregation are an essential problem in cell biology, biotechnology, and biomedicine. The protein aggregates are very different morphologically varying from soluble amorphous aggregates to highly ordered amyloid-like fibrils. The objective of this study was to elucidate the role of the amino acid L-arginine (Arg), a widely used suppressor of protein aggregation, in the regulation of transformations of soluble aggregation-prone proteins into supramolecular structures of higher order. However, a striking potential of Arg to govern the initial events in the process of protein aggregation has been revealed under environment conditions where the protein aggregation in its absence was not observed. Using dynamic light scattering we have demonstrated that Arg (10-100 mM) dramatically accelerated the dithiothreitol-induced aggregation of acidic model proteins. The inhibitory effect on the protein aggregation was revealed at higher concentrations of Arg. Using atomic force microscopy it was shown that aggregation of α-lactalbumin from bovine milk induced upon addition of Arg reached a state of formation of supramolecular structures of non-fibrillar species profoundly differing from those of the individual protein in type, size, and shape. The interaction of another positively charged amino acid L-lysine with α-lactalbumin also resulted in profound acceleration of the aggregation process and transformation of supramolecular structures of the aggregates.

Transient transformation of oligomeric structure of alpha-crystallin during its chaperone action

New evidence for dynamic behavior and flexible oligomeric structure of the molecular chaperone α-crystallin is presented. Based on the results of laser dynamic light scattering, centrifugal ultrafiltration, size exclusion chromatography, analytical ultracentrifugation and electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel, addition of α-crystallin to fully reduced α-lactalbumin, used as a model protein substrate, at the stage of its start aggregate formation results in dissociation of multimeric structure of α-crystallin. In addition to large oligomers, transient low-sized assemblies are formed with the apparent molecular mass of 50-55 kDa that corresponds to the α-crystallin dimeric form associated with destabilized monomeric α-lactalbumin. This phenomenon is suggested to represent an essential component of a transient protective mechanism tuning the stressed protein to binding sites on the exposed surface of the chaperone dimers.

Beyond genetic factors in familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy: protein glycation and the loss of fibrinogen's chaperone activity

Familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) is a systemic conformational disease characterized by extracellular amyloid fibril formation from plasma transthyretin (TTR). This is a crippling, fatal disease for which liver transplantation is the only effective therapy. More than 80 TTR point mutations are associated with amyloidotic diseases and the most widely accepted disease model relates TTR tetramer instability with TTR point mutations. However, this model fails to explain two observations. First, native TTR also forms amyloid in systemic senile amyloidosis, a geriatric disease. Second, age at disease onset varies by decades for patients bearing the same mutation and some mutation carrier individuals are asymptomatic throughout their lives. Hence, mutations only accelerate the process and non-genetic factors must play a key role in the molecular mechanisms of disease. One of these factors is protein glycation, previously associated with conformational diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. The glycation hypothesis in FAP is supported by our previous discovery of methylglyoxal-derived glycation of amyloid fibrils in FAP patients. Here we show that plasma proteins are differentially glycated by methylglyoxal in FAP patients and that fibrinogen is the main glycation target. Moreover, we also found that fibrinogen interacts with TTR in plasma. Fibrinogen has chaperone activity which is compromised upon glycation by methylglyoxal. Hence, we propose that methylglyoxal glycation hampers the chaperone activity of fibrinogen, rendering TTR more prone to aggregation, amyloid formation and ultimately, disease.

A protein aggregation based test for screening of the agents affecting thermostability of proteins

To search for agents affecting thermal stability of proteins, a test based on the registration of protein aggregation in the regime of heating with a constant rate was used. The initial parts of the dependences of the light scattering intensity (I) on temperature (T) were analyzed using the following empiric equation: I = K_agg(T−T₀)², where K_agg is the parameter characterizing the initial rate of aggregation and T₀ is a temperature at which the initial increase in the light scattering intensity is registered. The aggregation data are interpreted in the frame of the model assuming the formation of the start aggregates at the initial stages of the aggregation process. Parameter T₀ corresponds to the moment of the origination of the start aggregates. The applicability of the proposed approach was demonstrated on the examples of thermal aggregation of glycogen phosphorylase b from rabbit skeletal muscles and bovine liver glutamate dehydrogenase studied in the presence of agents of different chemical nature. The elaborated approach to the study of protein aggregation may be used for rapid identification of small molecules that interact with protein targets.