1
|
Zhang Q, Sun W, Zheng M, Zhang N. Contribution of microglia/macrophage to the pathogenesis of TMEV infection in the central nervous system. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1452390. [PMID: 39155988 PMCID: PMC11327027 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1452390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with neurotropic viruses induces neuroinflammation and an immune response, which is associated with the development of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). The activation of both innate and adaptive immune responses, involving microglia, macrophages, and T and B cells, while required for efficient viral control within the CNS, is also associated with neuropathology. Under pathological events, such as CNS viral infection, microglia/macrophage undergo a reactive response, leading to the infiltration of immune cells from the periphery into the brain, disrupting CNS homeostasis and contributing to the pathogenesis of disease. The Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelination disease (TMEV-IDD), which serves as a mouse model of MS. This murine model made significant contributions to our understanding of the pathophysiology of MS following subsequent to infection. Microglia/macrophages could be activated into two different states, classic activated state (M1 state) and alternative activated state (M2 state) during TMEV infection. M1 possesses the capacity to initiate inflammatory response and secretes pro-inflammatory cytokines, and M2-liked microglia/macrophages are anti-inflammatory characterized by the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines. This review aims to discuss the roles of microglia/macrophages M1/M2-liked polarization during TMEV infection, and explore the potential therapeutic effect of balancing M1/M2-liked polarization of microglia/macrophages on MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ning Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
DePaula-Silva AB. The Contribution of Microglia and Brain-Infiltrating Macrophages to the Pathogenesis of Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Diseases during TMEV Infection of the Central Nervous System. Viruses 2024; 16:119. [PMID: 38257819 PMCID: PMC10819099 DOI: 10.3390/v16010119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with neurotropic viruses induces neuroinflammation and is associated with the development of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. The activation of the innate and adaptive immune response, including microglial, macrophages, and T and B cells, while required for efficient viral control within the CNS, is also associated with neuropathology. Under healthy conditions, resident microglia play a pivotal role in maintaining CNS homeostasis. However, during pathological events, such as CNS viral infection, microglia become reactive, and immune cells from the periphery infiltrate into the brain, disrupting CNS homeostasis and contributing to disease development. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), a neurotropic picornavirus, is used in two distinct mouse models: TMEV-induced demyelination disease (TMEV-IDD) and TMEV-induced seizures, representing mouse models of multiple sclerosis and epilepsy, respectively. These murine models have contributed substantially to our understanding of the pathophysiology of MS and seizures/epilepsy following viral infection, serving as critical tools for identifying pharmacological targetable pathways to modulate disease development. This review aims to discuss the host-pathogen interaction during a neurotropic picornavirus infection and to shed light on our current understanding of the multifaceted roles played by microglia and macrophages in the context of these two complexes viral-induced disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Beatriz DePaula-Silva
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pérez Gómez AA, Wang M, Kochan K, Amstalden K, Young CR, Welsh CJ, Phillips TD, Brinkmeyer-Langford CL. C57BL/6J mice exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid demonstrate altered immune responses and increased seizures after Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1228509. [PMID: 37600798 PMCID: PMC10434537 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1228509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Neurological diseases can stem from environmental influences such as antecedent viral infections or exposure to potential toxicants, some of which can trigger immune responses leading to neurological symptoms. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) is used to model human neurological conditions associated with prior viral infections, with outcomes partly attributable to improper induction and regulation of the immune response. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) can alter pathologies known to influence neurological disease such as inflammatory responses, cytokine expression, and glial activation. Co-exposure to TMEV and PFOA was used to test the hypothesis that early life exposure to the potential immunotoxicant PFOA would affect immune responses so as to render TMEV-resistant C57BL/6J (B6) mice susceptible to viral-induced neurological disease. Methods Neonate B6 mice were exposed to different treatments: non-injected, sham-infected with PBS, and TMEV-infected, with the drinking water of each group including either 70 ppt PFOA or filtered water. The effects of PFOA were evaluated by comparing neurological symptoms and changes in immune-related cytokine and chemokine production induced by viral infection. Immune responses of 23 cytokines and chemokines were measured before and after infection to determine the effects of PFOA exposure on immune response. Results Prior to infection, an imbalance between Th1, Th2, and Treg cytokines was observed in PFOA-exposed mice, suppressing IL-4 and IL-13 production. However, the balance was restored and characterized by an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines in the non-infected group, and a decrease in IL-10 in the PFOA + TMEV group. Furthermore, the PFOA + TMEV group experienced an increase in seizure frequency and severity. Discussion Overall, these findings provide insight into the complex roles of immune responses in the pathogenesis of virus-associated neurological diseases influenced by co-exposures to viruses and immunotoxic compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aracely A. Pérez Gómez
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Meichen Wang
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Kelli Kochan
- Texas A&M Institute for Genome Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Katia Amstalden
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Colin R. Young
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - C. Jane Welsh
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Timothy D. Phillips
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Candice L. Brinkmeyer-Langford
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bernardo A, Visentin S. Demyelinating Diseases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054596. [PMID: 36902026 PMCID: PMC10003426 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Demyelinating diseases are a group of pathologies characterized by the alteration of myelin-that is, the coating that wraps around most of the nerve fibres of the central and peripheral nervous system, whose goal is the improvement of nerve conduction and the preservation of energy spent during action potential propagation [...].
Collapse
|
5
|
Kim BS. Critical role of TLR activation in viral replication, persistence, and pathogenicity of Theiler's virus. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1167972. [PMID: 37153539 PMCID: PMC10157096 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1167972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) establishes persistent viral infections in the central nervous system and induces chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease in susceptible mice. TMEV infects dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells, and glial cells. The state of TLR activation in the host plays a critical role in initial viral replication and persistence. The further activation of TLRs enhances viral replication and persistence, leading to the pathogenicity of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. Various cytokines are produced via TLRs, and MDA-5 signals linked with NF-κB activation following TMEV infection. In turn, these signals further amplify TMEV replication and the persistence of virus-infected cells. The signals further elevate cytokine production, promoting the development of Th17 responses and preventing cellular apoptosis, which enables viral persistence. Excessive levels of cytokines, particularly IL-6 and IL-1β, facilitate the generation of pathogenic Th17 immune responses to viral antigens and autoantigens, leading to TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. These cytokines, together with TLR2 may prematurely generate functionally deficient CD25-FoxP3+ CD4+ T cells, which are subsequently converted to Th17 cells. Furthermore, IL-6 and IL-17 synergistically inhibit the apoptosis of virus-infected cells and the cytolytic function of CD8+ T lymphocytes, prolonging the survival of virus-infected cells. The inhibition of apoptosis leads to the persistent activation of NF-κB and TLRs, which continuously provides an environment of excessive cytokines and consequently promotes autoimmune responses. Persistent or repeated infections of other viruses such as COVID-19 may result in similar continuous TLR activation and cytokine production, leading to autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
|
6
|
Pérez Gómez AA, Karmakar M, Carroll RJ, Lawley KS, Amstalden K, Young CR, Threadgill DW, Welsh CJ, Brinkmeyer-Langford C. Serum Cytokines Predict Neurological Damage in Genetically Diverse Mouse Models. Cells 2022; 11:2044. [PMID: 35805128 PMCID: PMC9265636 DOI: 10.3390/cells11132044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections contribute to neurological and immunological dysfunction driven by complex genetic networks. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) causes neurological dysfunction in mice and can model human outcomes to viral infections. Here, we used genetically distinct mice from five Collaborative Cross mouse strains and C57BL/6J to demonstrate how TMEV-induced immune responses in serum may predict neurological outcomes in acute infection. To test the hypothesis that serum cytokine levels can provide biomarkers for phenotypic outcomes of acute disease, we compared cytokine levels at pre-injection, 4 days post-injection (d.p.i.), and 14 d.p.i. Each strain produced unique baseline cytokine levels and had distinct immune responses to the injection procedure itself. Thus, we eliminated the baseline responses to the injection procedure itself and identified cytokines and chemokines induced specifically by TMEV infection. Then, we identified strain-specific longitudinal cytokine profiles in serum during acute disease. Using stepwise regression analysis, we identified serum immune markers predictive for TMEV-induced neurological phenotypes of the acute phase, e.g., IL-9 for limb paralysis; and TNF-α, IL-1β, and MIP-1β for limb weakness. These findings indicate how temporal differences in immune responses are influenced by host genetic background and demonstrate the potential of serum biomarkers to track the neurological effects of viral infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aracely A. Pérez Gómez
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Moumita Karmakar
- Department of Statistics, College of Science, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.K.); (R.J.C.)
| | - Raymond J. Carroll
- Department of Statistics, College of Science, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (M.K.); (R.J.C.)
| | - Koedi S. Lawley
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Katia Amstalden
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Colin R. Young
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - David W. Threadgill
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A & M Health Science Center, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - C. Jane Welsh
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Candice Brinkmeyer-Langford
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.S.L.); (K.A.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sobel RA, Albertelli M, Hinojoza JR, Eaton MJ, Grimes KV, Rubenstein E. Azetidine-2-Carboxylic Acid-Induced Oligodendrogliopathy: Relevance to the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2022; 81:414-433. [PMID: 35521963 PMCID: PMC9123080 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlac028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The naturally occurring imino acid azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (Aze) is consumed by humans and can be misincorporated in place of proline in myelin basic protein (MBP) in vitro. To determine Aze effects on the mammalian CNS in vivo, adult CD1 mice were given Aze orally or intraperitoneally. Clinical signs reminiscent of MBP-mutant mice occurred with 600 mg/kg Aze exposure. Aze induced oligodendrocyte (OL) nucleomegaly and nucleoplasm clearing, dilated endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasmic vacuolation, abnormal mitochondria, and Aze dose-dependent apoptosis. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated myelin blistering and nuclear translocation of unfolded protein response (UPR)/proinflammatory molecules (ATF3, ATF4, ATF6, eIF2α, GADD153, NFκB, PERK, XBP1), MHC I expression, and MBP cytoplasmic aggregation in OL. There were scattered microglial nodules in CNS white matter (WM); other CNS cells appeared unaffected. Mice given Aze in utero and postnatally showed more marked effects than their dams. These OL, myelin, and microglial alterations are found in normal-appearing WM (NAWM) in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Thus, Aze induces a distinct oligodendrogliopathy in mice that recapitulates MS NAWM pathology without leukocyte infiltration. Because myelin proteins are relatively stable throughout life, we hypothesize that Aze misincorporation in myelin proteins during myelinogenesis in humans results in a progressive UPR that may be a primary process in MS pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raymond A Sobel
- From the Laboratory Service, Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Megan Albertelli
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Julian R Hinojoza
- From the Laboratory Service, Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Mary Jane Eaton
- From the Laboratory Service, Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Kevin V Grimes
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Edward Rubenstein
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|