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Pakostova E, Graves J, Latvyte E, Maddalena G, Horsfall L. A novel closed-loop biotechnology for recovery of cobalt from a lithium-ion battery active cathode material. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2024; 170:001475. [PMID: 39016549 PMCID: PMC11318048 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been increasing rapidly. Conventional recycling strategies (based on pyro- and hydrometallurgy) are damaging for the environment and more sustainable methods need to be developed. Bioleaching is a promising environmentally friendly approach that uses microorganisms to solubilize metals. However, a bioleaching-based technology has not yet been applied to recover valuable metals from waste LIBs on an industrial scale. A series of experiments was performed to improve metal recovery rates from an active cathode material (LiCoO2; LCO). (i) Direct bioleaching of ≤0.5 % LCO with two prokaryotic acidophilic consortia achieved >80 % Co and 90 % Li extraction. Significantly lower metal recovery rates were obtained at 30 °C than at 45 °C. (ii) In contrast, during direct bioleaching of 3 % LCO with consortia adapted to elevated LCO levels, the 30 °C consortium performed significantly better than the 45 °C consortium, solubilizing 73 and 93 % of the Co and Li, respectively, during one-step bioleaching, and 83 and 99 % of the Co and Li, respectively, during a two-step process. (iii) The adapted 30°C consortium was used for indirect leaching in a low-waste closed-loop system (with 10 % LCO). The process involved generation of sulfuric acid in an acid-generating bioreactor (AGB), 2-3 week leaching of LCO with the biogenic acid (pH 0.9), selective precipitation of Co as hydroxide, and recirculation of the metal-free liquor back into the AGB. In total, 58.2 % Co and 100 % Li were solubilized in seven phases, and >99.9 % of the dissolved Co was recovered after each phase as a high-purity Co hydroxide. Additionally, Co nanoparticles were generated from the obtained Co-rich leachates, using Desulfovibrio alaskensis, and Co electrowinning was optimized as an alternative recovery technique, yielding high recovery rates (91.1 and 73.6% on carbon felt and roughened steel, respectively) from bioleachates that contained significantly lower Co concentrations than industrial hydrometallurgical liquors. The closed-loop system was highly dominated by the mixotrophic archaeon Ferroplasma and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria Acidithiobacillus caldus and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. The developed system achieved high metal recovery rates and provided high-purity solid products suitable for a battery supply chain, while minimizing waste production and the inhibitory effects of elevated concentrations of dissolved metals on the leaching prokaryotes. The system is suitable for scale-up applications and has the potential to be adapted to different battery chemistries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Pakostova
- Centre for Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK
- Centre for Manufacturing and Materials, Institute for Clean Growth and Future Mobility, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK
- MIRARCO Mining Innovation, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada
- Goodman School of Mines, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada
| | - John Graves
- Centre for Manufacturing and Materials, Institute for Clean Growth and Future Mobility, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK
| | - Egle Latvyte
- Centre for Manufacturing and Materials, Institute for Clean Growth and Future Mobility, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB, UK
| | - Giovanni Maddalena
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FF, UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project), Quad One, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK
| | - Louise Horsfall
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3FF, UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project), Quad One, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK
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Feng J, Zhang B, Du P, Yuan Y, Li M, Chen X, Guo Y, Xie H, Yin H. Recovery of LiCoO 2 and graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries by molten-salt electrolysis. iScience 2023; 26:108097. [PMID: 37876797 PMCID: PMC10590967 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The recovery of spent lithium-ion batteries has not only economic value but also ecological benefits. In this paper, molten-salt electrolysis was employed to recover spent LiCoO2 batteries, in which NaCl-Na2CO3 melts were used as the electrolyte, the graphite rod and the mixtures of the spent LiCoO2 cathode and anode were used as the anode and cathode, respectively. During the electrolysis, the LiCoO2 was electrochemically reduced to Co, and Li+ and O2- entered into the molten salt. The O2- was discharged at the anode to generate CO2 and formed Li2CO3. After electrolysis, the cathodic products were separated by magnetic separation to obtain Co and graphite, and Li2CO3 was recovered by water leaching. The recovery efficiencies of Li, Co, and graphite reached 99.3%, 98.1%, and 83.6%, respectively. Overall, this paper provides a simple and efficient electrochemical method for the simultaneous recovery of the cathode and the anode of spent LiCoO2 batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Feng
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Beilei Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, P.R. China
| | - Pin Du
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Yahong Yuan
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Mengting Li
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Xiang Chen
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Yanyang Guo
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Hongwei Xie
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
| | - Huayi Yin
- Key Laboratory for Ecological Metallurgy of Multimetallic Mineral of Ministry of Education, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, 11 Wenhua Road, Heping District, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Data Analytics and Optimization for Smart Industry, Ministry of Education, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, P.R. China
- School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, 299 Bayi Road, Wuhan, Wuchang District 430072, P.R. China
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Zhang X, Zeng L, Wang Y, Tian J, Wang J, Sun W, Han H, Yang Y. Selective separation of metals from wastewater using sulfide precipitation: A critical review in agents, operational factors and particle aggregation. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 344:118462. [PMID: 37384991 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Extensive research has been conducted on the separation and recovery of heavy metals from wastewater through the targeted precipitation of metal sulfides. It is necessary to integrate various factors to establish the internal correlation between sulfide precipitation and selective separation. This study provides a comprehensive review of the selective precipitation of metal sulfides, considering sulfur source types, operating factors, and particle aggregation. The controllable release of H2S from insoluble metal sulfides has garnered research interest due to its potential for development. The pH value and sulfide ion supersaturation are identified as key operational factors influencing selectivity precipitation. Effective adjustment of sulfide concentration and feeding rate can reduce local supersaturation and improve separation accuracy. The particle surface potential and hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties are crucial factors affecting particle aggregation, and methods to enhance particle settling and filtration performance are summarized. The regulation of pH and sulfur ion saturation also controls the zeta potential and hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties on the particles surface, thereby affecting particle aggregation. Insoluble sulfides can decrease sulfur ion supersaturation and improve separation accuracy, but they can also promote particle nucleation and growth by acting as growth platforms and reducing energy barriers. The combined influence of sulfur source and regulation factors is vital for achieving precise separation of metal ions and particle aggregation. Finally, suggestions and prospects are proposed for the development of agents, kinetic optimization, and product utilization to promote the industrial application of selective precipitation of metal sulfides in a better, safer, and more efficient way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingfei Zhang
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Liqiang Zeng
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Yufeng Wang
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Jia Tian
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Jingbo Wang
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Wei Sun
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Haisheng Han
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
| | - Yue Yang
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
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Echavarri-Bravo V, Amari H, Hartley J, Maddalena G, Kirk C, Tuijtel MW, Browning ND, Horsfall LE. Selective bacterial separation of critical metals: towards a sustainable method for recycling lithium ion batteries. GREEN CHEMISTRY : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL AND GREEN CHEMISTRY RESOURCE : GC 2022; 24:8512-8522. [PMID: 36353209 PMCID: PMC9621301 DOI: 10.1039/d2gc02450k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The large scale recycling of lithium ion batteries (LIBs) is essential to satisfy global demands for the raw materials required to implement this technology as part of a clean energy strategy. However, despite what is rapidly becoming a critical need, an efficient and sustainable recycling process for LIBs has yet to be developed. Biological reactions occur with great selectivity under mild conditions, offering new avenues for the implementation of more environmentally sustainable processes. Here, we demonstrate a sequential process employing two bacterial species to recover Mn, Co and Ni, from vehicular LIBs through the biosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles, whilst Li remains within the leachate. Moreover the feasibility of Mn recovery from polymetallic solutions was demonstrated at semi-pilot scale in a 30 L bioreactor. Additionally, to provide insight into the biological process occurring, we investigated selectivity between Co and Ni using proteomics to identify the biological response and confirm the potential of a bio-based method to separate these two essential metals. Our approach determines the principles and first steps of a practical bio-separation and recovery system, underlining the relevance of harnessing biological specificity for recycling and up-cycling critical materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Echavarri-Bravo
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FF UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
| | - Houari Amari
- Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 3GQ UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
| | - Jennifer Hartley
- School of Chemistry, University of Leicester Leicester LE1 7RH UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
| | - Giovanni Maddalena
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FF UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
| | - Caroline Kirk
- School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FJ UK
| | - Maarten W Tuijtel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FF UK
| | - Nigel D Browning
- Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 3GQ UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
- Sivananthan Laboratories 590 Territorial Drive Bolingbrook IL 60440 USA
- Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory P.O. Box 999 Richland WA 99352 USA
| | - Louise E Horsfall
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FF UK
- Faraday Institution (ReLiB project) Quad One Harwell Science and Innovation Campus Didcot UK
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Sharma N, Westerhoff P, Zeng C. Lithium occurrence in drinking water sources of the United States. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 305:135458. [PMID: 35752313 PMCID: PMC9724211 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Lithium (Li) is listed in the fifth Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR 5) because insufficient exposure data exists for lithium in drinking water. To help fill this data gap, lithium occurrence in source waters across the United States was assessed in 21 drinking water utilities. From the 369 samples collected from drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), lithium ranged from 0.9 to 161 μg/L (median = 13.9 μg/L) in groundwater, and from <0.5 to 130 μg/L (median = 3.9 μg/L) in surface water. Lithium in 56% of the groundwater and 13% of the surface water samples were above non-regulatory Health-Based Screening Level (HBSL) of 10 μg/L. Sodium and lithium concentrations were strongly correlated: Kendall's τ > 0.6 (p < 0.001). As sodium is regularly monitored, this result shows that sodium can serve as an indicator to identify water sources at higher risk for elevated lithium. Lithium concentrations in the paired samples collected in source water and treated drinking water were almost identical showing lithium was not removed by conventional drinking water treatment processes. Additional sampling in wastewater effluents detected lithium at 0.8-98.2 μg/L (median = 9.9 μg/L), which suggests more research on impacts of lithium in direct and indirect potable reuse may be warranted, as the median was close to the HBSL. For comparison with the study samples collected from DWTPs, lithium concentrations from the national water quality portal (WQP) database were also investigated. Over 35,000 measurements were collected from waters that could potentially be used as drinking water sources (Cl- < 250 mg/L). Data from WQP had comparable median lithium concentrations: 18 and 20 μg/L for surface water and groundwater, respectively. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive occurrence potential for lithium in US drinking water sources and can inform the data collection effort in UCMR 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naushita Sharma
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, USA; Jacobs Engineering Group, Drinking Water and Reuse, Englewood, CO, 80112, USA
| | - Paul Westerhoff
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, USA
| | - Chao Zeng
- Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-3005, USA.
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Makwarimba CP, Tang M, Peng Y, Lu S, Zheng L, Zhao Z, Zhen AG. Assessment of recycling methods and processes for lithium-ion batteries. iScience 2022; 25:104321. [PMID: 35602951 PMCID: PMC9117887 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This review discusses physical, chemical, and direct lithium-ion battery recycling methods to have an outlook on future recovery routes. Physical and chemical processes are employed to treat cathode active materials which are the greatest cost contributor in the production of lithium batteries. Direct recycling processes maintain the original chemical structure and process value of battery materials by recovering and reusing them directly. Mechanical separation is essential to liberate cathode materials that are concentrated in the finer size region. However, currently, the cathode active materials are being concentrated at a cut point that is considerably greater than the actual size found in spent batteries. Effective physical methods reduce the cost of subsequent chemical treatment and thereafter re-lithiation successfully reintroduces lithium into spent cathodes. Some of the current challenges are the difficulty in controlling impurities in recovered products and ensuring that the entire recycling process is more sustainable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengetai Portia Makwarimba
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Minghui Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Yaqi Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Shengyong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, PR China
| | - Lingxia Zheng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Zhefei Zhao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Ai-gang Zhen
- Zhejiang Tianneng New Materials Co., Ltd., Huzhou 313000, PR China
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Abstract
The interest in metal sulfide precipitation has recently increased given its capacity to efficiently recover several metals and metalloids from different aqueous sources, including wastewaters and hydrometallurgical solutions. This article reviews recent studies about metal sulfide precipitation, considering that the most relevant review article on the topic was published in 2010. Thus, our review emphasizes and focuses on the overall process and its main unit operations. This study follows the flow diagram definition, discussing the recent progress in the application of this process on different aqueous matrices to recover/remove diverse metals/metalloids from them, in addition to kinetic reaction and reactor types, different sulfide sources, precipitate behavior, improvements in solid–liquid separation, and future perspectives. The features included in this review are: operational conditions in terms of pH and Eh to perform a selective recovery of different metals contained in an aqueous source, the aggregation/colloidal behavior of precipitates, new materials for controlling sulfide release, and novel solid–liquid separation processes based on membrane filtration. It is therefore relevant that the direct production of nanoparticles (Nps) from this method could potentially become a future research approach with important implications on unit operations, which could possibly expand to several applications.
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E-Waste Recycling and Resource Recovery: A Review on Technologies, Barriers and Enablers with a Focus on Oceania. METALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/met11081313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Electronic e-waste (e-waste) is a growing problem worldwide. In 2019, total global production reached 53.6 million tons, and is estimated to increase to 74.7 million tons by 2030. This rapid increase is largely fuelled by higher consumption rates of electrical and electronic goods, shorter life cycles and fewer repair options. E-waste is classed as a hazardous substance, and if not collected and recycled properly, can have adverse environmental impacts. The recoverable material in e-waste represents significant economic value, with the total value of e-waste generated in 2019 estimated to be US $57 billion. Despite the inherent value of this waste, only 17.4% of e-waste was recycled globally in 2019, which highlights the need to establish proper recycling processes at a regional level. This review provides an overview of global e-waste production and current technologies for recycling e-waste and recovery of valuable material such as glass, plastic and metals. The paper also discusses the barriers and enablers influencing e-waste recycling with a specific focus on Oceania.
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High-Performance Recovery of Cobalt and Nickel from the Cathode Materials of NMC Type Li-Ion Battery by Complexation-Assisted Solvent Extraction. MINERALS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/min10080662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The annual global volume of waste lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been increasing over years. Although solvent extraction method seems well developed, the separation factor between cobalt and nickel is still relatively low—only 72 when applying conventional continuous-countercurrent extraction. In this study, we improved the separation factor of cobalt and nickel by complexation-assisted solvent extraction. Before solvent extraction procedure, leaching kinetic of Li, Ni, Co and Mn was studied and can be explained by the Avrami equation. Leached residues were also investigated by SEM and XRD. Operation parameters of complexation-assisted solvent extraction were examined, including volume ratio of extractant to diluent, types of diluent, type of complexing reagent, extractant saponification percentage and volume ratio of organic phase to aqueous phase. The optimal separation factor of complexation-assisted solvent extraction could be improved to 372, which is five times that of conventional solvent extraction. The separation tendency would be interpreted by the relationship between extraction equilibrium pH and log distribution coefficient.
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Mossali E, Picone N, Gentilini L, Rodrìguez O, Pérez JM, Colledani M. Lithium-ion batteries towards circular economy: A literature review of opportunities and issues of recycling treatments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 264:110500. [PMID: 32250918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in advanced technological devices and Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, due to their high energy density for weight, reduced memory effect and significant number of supported charging/discharging cycles. As a consequence, the production and the use of Lithium-ion batteries will continuously increase in the near future, focusing the global attention on their End-of-Life management. Unfortunately, wasted Lithium-ion batteries treatments are still under development, far from the optimization of recycling processes and technologies, and currently recycling represents the only alternative for the social, economic and environmental sustainability of this market, able to minimize toxicity of End-of-Life products, to create a monetary gain and to lead to the independence from foreign resources or critical materials. This paper analyses the current alternatives for the recycling of Lithium-ion batteries, specifically focusing on available procedures for batteries securing and discharging, mechanical pre-treatments and materials recovery processes (i.e. pyro- and hydrometallurgical), and it highlights the pros and cons of treatments in terms of energy consumption, recovery efficiency and safety issues. Target metals (e.g. Cobalt, Nickel and Lithium) are listed and prioritized, and the economic advantage deriving by the material recovery is outlined. An in-depth literature review was conducted, analysing the existing industrial processes, to show the on-going technological solutions proposed by research projects and industrial developments, comparing best results and open issues and criticalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Mossali
- STIIMA CNR, Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing - National Research Council, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | | | - Luca Gentilini
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 1, Milan, Italy
| | - Olga Rodrìguez
- National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Avda. Gregorio del Amo 8, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Manuel Pérez
- Envirobat España, Avda. de Lyon 10, 19200, Azuqueca de Henares, Guadalajara, Spain
| | - Marcello Colledani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 1, Milan, Italy
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