Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery

Application of chitosan as nano carrier in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), encompassing ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), is characterized by persistent and recurrent gastrointestinal inflammation. Conventional IBD therapies often involve the use of antibiotics, NSAIDs, biological agents, and immunomodulators. While these medications can mitigate acute inflammatory symptoms, their long-term efficacy is frequently compromised due to cumulative toxic effects. In recent years, significant attention has shifted toward nanoparticle (NP)-based therapies as potential alternatives for IBD management. Various drug delivery strategies, including those targeting microbiota interactions, ligand-receptor binding, pH sensitivity, biodegradability, pressure response, and specific charge and size parameters, have been explored and optimized in animal studies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of chitosan NP-mediated drug delivery systems for IBD treatment. Additionally, it will discuss the prevailing challenges and propose future research directions to advance chitosan NP-based therapeutic strategies for IBD.

A computational approach to identifying peptide inhibitors againstWhite Spot Syndrome Virus: Targeting the virus envelope protein

The white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), a rapidly replicating and highly lethal pathogen that targets Penaeid shrimp, has emerged as one of the most widespread viruses globally due to its high virulence. With effective chemotherapeutics still unavailable, the pursuit of novel and viable strategies against WSSV remains a crucial focus in the field of shrimp farming. The envelope proteins of WSSV are essential for virus entry, serving as excellent targets for the development of antiviral therapeutics. Novel strategies in the design of inhibitory peptides, especially those targeting envelope protein (VP28) located on the surface of the virus particle, play a critical role as a significant virulence factor during the early stages of inherent WSSV infection in shrimp. In this direction, the current computational study focused on identifying self-inhibitory peptides from the hydrophobic membrane regions of the VP28 protein, employing peptide docking and molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) approaches. Such inhibitory peptides could be useful building blocks for the rational engineering of inhibitory therapeutics since they imitate the mechanism of binding to homologous partners used by their origin domain to interact with other molecules. The N-terminal sequence of VP28 has been reported as the potential site for membrane interactions during the virus entry. Moreover, drug delivery systems mediated by chitosan and gold nanoparticles are being developed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of anti-viral peptides. These systems can increase the solubility, stability, and selectivity of peptides, possessing better qualities than conventional delivery methods. This computational study on self-inhibitory peptides could be a valuable resource for further in vitro and in vivo studies on anti-viral therapeutics in the aquaculture industry.

Chitosan as a tool for tissue engineering and rehabilitation: Recent developments and future perspectives - A review

Chitosan has established itself as a multifunctional and auspicious biomaterial within the domain of tissue engineering, presenting a decade of uninterrupted advancements and novel implementations. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the most recent developments in chitosan-based tissue engineering, focusing on significant progress made in the last ten years. An exploration is conducted of the various techniques utilized in the modification of chitosan and the production of scaffolds, with an analysis of their effects on cellular reactions and tissue regeneration. The investigation focuses on the integration of chitosan with other biomaterials and the addition of bioactive agents to improve their functionalities. Upon careful analysis of the in vitro and in vivo research, it becomes evident that chitosan effectively stimulates cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Furthermore, we offer valuable perspectives on the dynamic realm of chitosan-based approaches tailored to distinct tissue categories, including nerve, bone, cartilage, and skin. The review concludes with a discussion of prospective developments, with particular attention given to possible directions for additional study, translational implementations, and the utilization of chitosan to tackle existing obstacles in the field of tissue engineering. This extensive examination provides a significant amalgamation of the advancements achieved over the previous decade and directs scholars towards uncharted territories in chitosan-based tissue engineering.

Alternative routes for parenteral nucleic acid delivery and related hurdles: highlights in RNA delivery

INTRODUCTION

Nucleic acid-based therapies are promising advancements in medicine. They offer unparalleled efficacy in treating previously untreatable diseases through precise gene manipulation techniques. However, the challenge of achieving targeted delivery to specific cells remains a significant obstacle.

AREAS COVERED

This review thoroughly examines the physicochemical properties of nucleic acids, focusing on their interaction with carriers and exploring various delivery routes, including oral, pulmonary, ocular, and dermal routes. It also examines the nonviral vector delivery efficiency of nucleic acids, focusing on RNA, and provides regulatory landscapes.

EXPERT OPINION

The role of carriers in improving the effectiveness of nucleic acid-based therapies is emphasized. The discussion of published results covers regulatory frameworks, including insights into European Medicines Agency guidelines. It highlights cutting-edge biotechnological innovations and a quality-by-design approach that could facilitate clinical translation and smooth regulatory obstacles.

Investigation of pH-dependent Paclitaxel delivery mechanism employing Chitosan-Eudragit bioresponsive nanocarriers: a molecular dynamics simulation

Before embarking on any experimental research endeavor, it is advisable to do a mathematical computation and thoroughly examine the methodology. Despite the use of polymeric nanocarriers, the regulation of bioavailability and drug release at the disease site remains insufficient. Several effective methods have been devised to address this issue, including the creation of polymeric nanocarriers that can react to stimuli such as redox potential, temperature, pH, and light. The present study has been utilized all-atom molecular dynamics (AA-MD) and coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CG-MD) methods and illustrated the drug release mechanism, which is influenced by pH, for Chitosan-Eudragit bioresponsive nanocarriers. The aim of current work is to study the molecular mechanism and atomistic interactions of PAX delivery using a Chitosan-Eudragit carrier. The ability of Eudragit polymers to dissolve in various organic solvents employed in the process of solvent evaporation is a crucial benefit in enhancing the solubility of pharmaceuticals. This study investigated the use of Chitosan-Eudragit nanocarriers for delivering an anti-tumor drug, namely Paclitaxel (PAX). Upon analyzing several significant factors affecting the stability of the drug and nanocarrier, it has been shown that the level of stability is more significant in the neutral state than the acidic state. Furthermore, the system exhibits higher stability in the neutral state. The used Chitosan-Eudragit nanocarriers exhibit a stable structure under alkaline conditions, but undergo deformation and release their payloads under acidic conditions. It was demonstrated that the in silico analysis of anti-tumor drugs and carriers' integration could be quantified and validated by experimental results (from previous works) at an acceptable level.

Trends in sustainable chitosan-based hydrogel technology for circular biomedical engineering: A review

Eco-friendly materials have emerged in biomedical engineering, driving major advances in chitosan-based hydrogels. These hydrogels offer a promising green alternative to conventional polymers due to their non-toxicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, environmental friendliness, affordability, and easy accessibility. Known for their remarkable properties such as drug encapsulation, delivery capabilities, biosensing, functional scaffolding, and antimicrobial behavior, chitosan hydrogels are at the forefront of biomedical research. This paper explores the fabrication and modification methods of chitosan hydrogels for diverse applications, highlighting their role in advancing climate-neutral healthcare technologies. It reviews significant scientific advancements and trends chitosan hydrogels focusing on cancer diagnosis, drug delivery, and wound care. Additionally, it addresses current challenges and green synthesis practices that support a circular economy, enhancing biomedical sustainability. By providing an in-depth analysis of the latest evidence on climate-neutral management, this review aims to facilitate informed decision-making and foster the development of sustainable strategies leveraging chitosan hydrogel technology. The insights from this comprehensive examination are pivotal for steering future research and applications in sustainable biomedical solutions.

Chitosan: An overview of biological activities, derivatives, properties, and current advancements in biomedical applications

The second and most often utilized natural polymer is chitosan (CS), a naturally existing amino polysaccharide that is produced by deacetylating chitin. Numerous applications have been the subject of in-depth investigation due to its non-hazardous, biologically compatible, and biodegradable qualities. Chitosan's characteristics, such as mucoadhesion, improved permeability, controlled release of drugs, in situ gelation process, and antibacterial activity, depend on its amino (-NH2) and hydroxyl groups (-OH). This study examines the latest findings in chitosan research, including its characteristics, derivatives, preliminary research, toxic effects, pharmaceutical kinetics and chitosan nanoparticles (CS-NPs) based for non-parenteral delivery of drugs. Chitosan and its derivatives have a wide range of physical and chemical properties that make them highly promising for use in the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. The characteristics and biological activities of chitosan and its derivative-based nanomaterials for the delivery of drugs, therapeutic gene transfer, delivery of vaccine, engineering tissues, evaluations, and other applications in medicine are highlighted in detail in the current review. Together with the techniques for binding medications to nanoparticles, the application of the nanoparticles was also dictated by their physical properties that were classified and specified. The most recent research investigations on delivery of drugs chitosan nanoparticle-based medication delivery methods applied topically, through the skin, and through the eyes were considered.

A blend of chitosan-vitamin C and vitamin E nanoparticles robust the immunosuppressed- status in Nile tilapia treated with salt

In aquaculture, fish are exposed to many stressors, such as climate changes and infectious diseases that affect their performance, immunity, and welfare. Freshwater fish subjected to salt bath become exhausted and stressed. In this experiment, Nile tilapia were exposed to a salt bath at a dose of 30 ppt for 30 min a day. Vitamin C and vitamin E are well-known antioxidants that are used in aquaculture. Fish received dietary nanoparticles of chitosan-vitamin C and chitosan-vitamin E (CCE-NPs) for different periods (7 and 14 days) pre- (G2) and post-salt treatment (G3). In the control fish (G1), cortisol 5.44 µg/dL and glucose 91.67 mg/dL were significantly up-regulated post-salt treatment by 1 h and 24 h, respectively, whereas those (G2) fed CCE-NPs diet had significantly lower values of 4.72 and 3.25 µg/dL; 86.3 and 84.3 mg/dL, respectively. A rapid decrease of glucose 68.3 and 66.3 mg/dL was noticed in those (G2) fed CCE-NPs diet compared to the control 84.67 mg/dL at 48 h post-stress. Regardless of the supplementation period, fish (G2) could partially restore normal food reflex at 48 h (post-salt bath) and fully restored at 72 h compared to 7 days in the control (G1). After 48 h, fish that received dietary CCE-NPs (G2 and G3) restored normal mucus lysozyme levels, whereas the control did not restore pre-treatment values till the seventh day. Mucus antibacterial activity, fish received rapid dietary CCE-NPs (G2) and partially restored average values (pre-salt bath) at 96 h. The salt treatment could provoke gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis (TNF)-α in the head kidney of fish at 24 h post-salt bath to 5.9-8.35 fold-change, respectively, with a rapid decline in fish (G2) the gene expression. Post-salt bath (24 h), the gene expression of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) was higher in fish (G2) than in the control group (G1) regardless of the supplementation period (7 and 14 days). Bacterial infection S. agalactiae (OL471408), a significantly lower MR was recorded in G2 at 40% and 33.3% compared to the control G1 MR (53.3%), with an RPL of 24.95% and 37.5%. In conclusion, Nile tilapia treated with a 30 ppt salt became more vulnerable to S. agalactiae. Adding CCE-NPs to the Nile tilapia diet for 7- and 14-day pre-salt bath could increase immune and antioxidant-related gene expression to counteract S. agalactiae infection.

Immune-enhancing activity of compound polysaccharide on the inactivated influenza vaccine

Traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharides have numerous biological activities with broad applications in the biomedical industries. However, a clear understanding of the pharmacological activities of compound polysaccharides with multi-component structures remain challenging. This study aimed to investigate the immune boosting effect of compound polysaccharides on the influenza vaccine and assess the preliminary structure-activity relationship. The compound polysaccharide (CP) was isolated from the combined Chinese herbs lentinan, pachymaran and tremellan, and purified by gradient ethanol precipitation to obtain its subcomponents of CP-20, CP-40, CP-60, and CP-80 with decreasing molecular weights. These polysaccharides were mainly composed of glucans with different linkage patterns, including α-(1 → 3)-glucan, α-(1 → 4)-glucan and β-(1 → 6)-glucan. A significant improvement was observed in the survival of mice vaccinated with inactivated (IAV) vaccine and the isolated polysaccharides as adjuvants. A reduction in the pulmonary virus titer and weight loss were also observed. Moreover, CP-40 and CP-60, as well as the original CP, significantly enhanced the serum anti-IAV antibody titers and interleukin IL-2, IL-5, and IL-6 concentrations. These preliminary results indicate the immune boosting effect of the compound polysaccharides is highly relevant to the specific structural properties of the subcomponent, and CP-40 is worthy of further exploration as a glycan adjuvant for the IAV vaccine.

Separation and purification of hyaluronic acid by Fe3O4 nano and micro particles coated with chitosan and silica

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a glycosaminoglycan, is comprised of alternating units of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine. This compound harbors numerous biomedical applications, including its use in pharmaceuticals, wound healing, osteoarthritis treatment, and drug delivery. Its unique composition and exceptional features, such as its high water-absorbing and retaining capacity, have also led to its use in the cosmetics industry. The employment of this biopolymer has given rise to an escalation in the request for its manufacture. The present investigation has explored the correlation between hyaluronic acid and chitosan and silica for the purpose of separation. Consequently, Iron oxide magnetic nano particles and micro particles were produced via co-precipitation method and were layered with chitosan and silica to purify the hyaluronic acid from the fermentation broth that was generated by Streptococcus Zooepidemicus. The size distribution and zeta potentials of the two kinds of particles were gauged with the aid of a dynamic laser light scattering apparatus and zeta potential meter (Malvern, Zeta master) respectively. The confirmation of the chemical structure of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles and Fe3O4 particles conjugated with chitosan and silica was accomplished through the utilization of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). Protein contamination was thoroughly characterized by means of sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Nanodrop 2000/2000c spectrophotometers protein estimation method. The maximum HA adsorption capacity, under optimal pH conditions of 4, was determined to be 87 mg/g, 112 mg/g, 51 mg/g, and 44 mg/g for Fe3O4 -chitosan nanoparticle, Fe3O4 -chitosan micro particle, Fe3O4 -silica microparticle, and Fe3O4 -silica nanoparticle, respectively.

How Biodegradable Polymers Can be Effective Drug Delivery Systems for Cannabinoids? Prospectives and Challenges

Cannabinoids are compounds found in and derived from the Cannabis plants that have become increasingly recognised as significant modulating factors of physiological mechanisms and inflammatory reactions of the organism, thus inevitably affecting maintenance of homeostasis. Medical Cannabis popularity has surged since its legal regulation growing around the world. Numerous promising discoveries bring more data on cannabinoids' pharmacological characteristics and therapeutic applications. Given the current surge in interest in the medical use of cannabinoids, there is an urgent need for an effective method of their administration. Surpassing low bioavailability, low water solubility, and instability became an important milestone in the advancement of cannabinoids in pharmaceutical applications. The numerous uses of cannabinoids in clinical practice remain restricted by limited administration alternatives, but there is hope when biodegradable polymers are taken into account. The primary objective of this review is to highlight the wide range of indications for which cannabinoids may be used, as well as the polymeric carriers that enhance their effectiveness. The current review described a wide range of therapeutic applications of cannabinoids, including pain management, neurological and sleep disorders, anxiety, and cancer treatment. The use of these compounds was further examined in the area of dermatology and cosmetology. Finally, with the use of biodegradable polymer-based drug delivery systems (DDSs), it was demonstrated that cannabinoids can be delivered specifically to the intended site while also improving the drug's physicochemical properties, emphasizing their utility. Nevertheless, additional clinical trials on novel cannabinoids' formulations are required, as their full spectrum therapeutical potential is yet to be unravelled.

Therapeutic applications of biological macromolecules and scaffolds for skeletal muscle regeneration: A review

Skeletal muscle (SM) mass and strength maintenance are important requirements for human well-being. SM regeneration to repair minor injuries depends upon the myogenic activities of muscle satellite (stem) cells. However, losses of regenerative properties following volumetric muscle loss or severe trauma or due to congenital muscular abnormalities are not self-restorable, and thus, these conditions have major healthcare implications and pose clinical challenges. In this context, tissue engineering based on different types of biomaterials and scaffolds provides an encouraging means of structural and functional SM reconstruction. In particular, biomimetic (able to transmit biological signals) and several porous scaffolds are rapidly evolving. Several biological macromolecules/biomaterials (collagen, gelatin, alginate, chitosan, and fibrin etc.) are being widely used for SM regeneration. However, available alternatives for SM regeneration must be redesigned to make them more user-friendly and economically feasible with longer shelf lives. This review aimed to explore the biological aspects of SM regeneration and the roles played by several biological macromolecules and scaffolds in SM regeneration in cases of volumetric muscle loss.

Chitosan-coated nanoparticles in innovative cancer bio-medicine

In the recent decade, nanoparticles (NPs) have had enormous implications in cancer biomedicine, including research, diagnosis, and therapy. However, their broad application still faces obstacles due to some practical limitations and requires further development. Recently, there has been more interest in the coated class of nanoparticles to address those challenges. Chitosan-coated NPs are simple to produce, biodegradable, biocompatible, exhibit antibacterial activity, and have less cytotoxicity. This study provides an updated and comprehensive overview of the application of chitosan-coated NPs as a promising class of NPs in cancer biomedicine. Additionally, we discussed chitosan-coated lipid, metal, and polymer-based nanoparticles in biomedical applications. Furthermore, different coating methods and production/characterization procedures were reviewed. Moreover, the biological and physicochemical advantages of chitosan-coated NPs, including facilitated controlled release, greater physicochemical stability, improved cell/tissue interaction, and enhanced bioavailability of medications, were highlighted. Finally, the prospects of chitosan-coated NPs in cancer biomedicine were discussed.

Layer-by-layer assembly of quercetin-loaded zein/γPGA/low-molecular-weight chitosan/fucoidan nanosystem for targeting inflamed blood vessels

Chitosan acts as a versatile carrier in polymeric nanoparticle (NP) for diverse drug administration routes. Delivery of antioxidants, such as quercetin (Qu) showcases potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties for reduction of various cardiovascular diseases, but low water solubility limits uptake. To address this, we developed a novel layer-by-layer zein/gamma-polyglutamic acid (γPGA)/low-molecular-weight chitosan (LC)/fucoidan NP for encapsulating Qu and targeting inflamed vessel endothelial cells. We used zein (Z) and γPGA (r) to encapsulate Qu (Qu-Zr NP) exhibited notably higher encapsulation efficiency compared to zein alone. Qu-Zr NP coated with LC (Qu-ZrLC2 NP) shows a lower particle size (193.2 ± 2.9 nm), and a higher zeta potential value (35.2 ± 0.4 mV) by zeta potential and transmission electron microscopy analysis. After coating Qu-ZrLC2 NP with fucoidan, Qu-ZrLC2Fa NP presented particle size (225.16 ± 0.92 nm), zeta potential (-25.66 ± 0.51 mV) and maintained antioxidant activity. Further analysis revealed that Qu-ZrLC2Fa NP were targeted and taken up by HUVEC cells and EA.hy926 endothelial cells. Notably, we observed Qu-ZrLC2Fa NP targeting zebrafish vessels and isoproterenol-induced inflamed vessels of rat. Our layer-by-layer formulated zein/γPGA/LC/fucoidan NP show promise as a targeted delivery system for water-insoluble drugs. Qu-ZrLC2Fa NP exhibit potential as an anti-inflammatory therapeutic for blood vessels.

Exploring glycans as vital biological macromolecules: A comprehensive review of advancements in biomedical frontiers

This comprehensive review delves into the intricate landscape of glycans and glycoconjugates, unraveling their multifaceted roles across diverse biological dimensions. From influencing fundamental cellular processes such as signaling, recognition, and adhesion to exerting profound effects at the molecular and genetic levels, these complex carbohydrate structures emerge as linchpins in cellular functions and interactions. The structural diversity of glycoconjugates, which can be specifically classified into glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans, underscores their importance in shaping the architecture of cells. Beyond their structural roles, these molecules also play key functions in facilitating cellular communication and modulating recognition mechanisms. Further, glycans and glycoconjugates prove invaluable as biomarkers in disease diagnostics, particularly in cancer, where aberrant glycosylation patterns offer critical diagnostic cues. Furthermore, the review explores their promising therapeutic applications, ranging from the development of glycan-based nanomaterials for precise drug delivery to innovative interventions in cancer treatment. This review endeavors to comprehensively explore the intricate functions of glycans and glycoconjugates, with the primary goal of offering valuable insights into their extensive implications in both health and disease. Encompassing a broad spectrum of biological processes, the focus of the review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the significant roles played by glycans and glycoconjugates.

Synthesis of Composite Sorbents with Chitosan and Varied Silica Phases for the Adsorption of Anionic Dyes

In this work, various types of silica materials were used for the synthesis of chitosan-silica composites. The composites were obtained using the chitosan (Ch) immobilization process from an aqueous solution on various silica phases, i.e., amorphous diatomite (ChAD), crystalline diatomite (ChCD), mesoporous silica MCM-41 (ChMCM), and mesoporous silica SBA-15 (ChSBA). Textural, structural, morphological, and surface properties of the materials were determined by using various measurement techniques, i.e., low-temperature adsorption/desorption isotherms of nitrogen, X-ray diffraction (XRD), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), potentiometric titration, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The adsorption properties towards various anionic dyes, i.e., acid red 88 (AR88), acid orange 8 (AO8), and orange G (OG), were evaluated based on kinetic and equilibrium measurements. The ChSBA, ChAD, and ChMCM composites were characterized by relatively high adsorption capacities (am) for AR88, with values equal to 0.78, 0.71, and 0.69 mmol/g, respectively. These composites were also distinguished by the rapid AR88 adsorption rate, with the values of half-time parameter t0.5 equal to 0.35, 2.84, and 1.53 min, respectively. The adsorption equilibrium and kinetic data were analyzed by applying the generalized Langmuir isotherm and the multi-exponential equation (m-exp), respectively. An interaction mechanism between the dyes and the obtained materials was proposed.

Comparative study on alginate/chitosan microcapsules and Montanide ISA 61 as vaccine adjuvants in mice

Selection of adjuvant to be combined with the antigen is an extremely important point for formulating effective vaccines. The aim of this study was to evaluate reactogenicity, levels of IgM, IgG and subclasses (IgG1, IgG2b and IgG3), and protection elicited by vaccine formulations with association of chitosan coated alginate or Montanide ISA 61 with γ-irradiated Brucella ovis. The alginate/chitosan biopolymers as well as the Montanide ISA 61 emulsion elicited intense and long-lasting local response, especially when associated with the antigen. However, Montanide ISA 61 induced less intense reactogenicity when compared to alginate/chitosan. Furthermore, γ-irradiated B. ovis with Montanide ISA 61 induced higher levels of IgG2b an important marker of cellular immune response. In conclusion, Montanide ISA 61 resulted in milder reactogenicity when compared to the alginate/chitosan, while it induced a high IgG2b/IgG1 ratio compatible with a Th1 profile response.

Fabrication and characterization of a Bi2O3-modified chitosan@ZIF-8 nanocomposite for enhanced drug loading-releasing efficacy

In this study, a simple novel hybrid mesoporous nanomaterial derived from a metal-organic framework (ZIF-8) and chitosan, which were coated on green bismuth oxide, has been successfully synthesized, characterized, and applied to investigate its dapsone loading-releasing capability in the aqueous media. This suggested nanocomposite showed promise for drug loading from water b using hydrogen bonds, pi-pi, and electrostatic interactions. Structural and morphological analyses were performed on the proposed green synthesized nanocomposite through scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis. Various influencing parameters, including pH, nanocomposite dose, and contact time, were investigated to optimize the dapsone loading process. Utilizing the non-linear optimization methodology, the results show that dapsone-loading efficiency was >85 % for 50 mg.L-1 of dapsone drug. The optimum parameters for achieving maximal loading of dapsone drug were pH = 6.8, hybrid mesosphere dose = 2.6 mg.mL-1, and time = 53 min. Based on the release investigations, the dapsone-loaded nanocomposite was put into phosphate buffer saline, at pH = 7.4 and T = 37 °C, with a maximum efficiency of 93.9 after 24 h.

Therapeutic applications of carbohydrate-based compounds: a sweet solution for medical advancement

Carbohydrates, one of the most abundant biomolecules found in nature, have been seen traditionally as a dietary component of foods. Recent findings, however, have unveiled their medicinal potential in the form of carbohydrates-derived drugs. Their remarkable structural diversity, high optical purity, bioavailability, low toxicity and the presence of multiple functional groups have positioned them as a valuable scaffold and an exciting frontier in contemporary therapeutics. At present, more than 170 carbohydrates-based therapeutics have been granted approval by varying regulatory agencies such as United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Japan Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA), Chinese National Medical Products Administration (NMPA), and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). This article explores an overview of the fascinating potential and impact of carbohydrate-derived compounds as pharmacological agents and drug delivery vehicles.

Effect of particle size and composition on local magnetic hyperthermia of chitosan-Mg1-xCoxFe2O4 nanohybrid

In this study, Mg1-xCoxFe2O4 (0≤x ≤ 1 with ∆x = 0.1) or MCFO nanoparticles were synthesized using a chemical co-precipitation method and annealed at 200, 400, 600, and 800°C respectively to investigate the structural properties of the materials by X-ray diffractometer (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Controlled annealing increased particle size for each value of x. The aim was to investigate how specific loss power (SLP) and maximum temperature (Tmax) during local magnetic hyperthermia were affected by structural alterations associated with particle size and composition. The lattice parameter, X-ray density, ionic radius, hopping length, bond length, cation-cation distance, and cation-anion distance increase with an increase in Co2+ content. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy reveal changes in cation distribution with Co2+ content and particle size. Magnetic properties measured by the physical property measurement system (PPMS) showed saturation magnetization (Ms), coercivity (Hc), remanent magnetization (Mr/Ms), and anisotropy constant (K1) of the Mg1-xCoxFe2O4 nanoparticles increase with Co2+ content and particle size. When exposed to an rf magnetic field, the nanohybrids experienced an increase in both the SLP (specific loss power) and Tmax (maximum temperature) as the particle size initially increased. However, these values reached their peak at critical particle size and subsequently decreased. This occurs since a modest increase in anisotropy, resulting from the presence of Co2+ and larger particle size, facilitates Néel and Brownian relaxation. However, for high anisotropy values and particle size, the Néel and Brownian relaxations are hindered, leading to the emergence of a critical size. The critical size increases as the Co2+ content decreases, but it decreases as the Co2+ content increases, a consequence of higher anisotropy with the increase in Co2+. Additionally, it is noteworthy that the maximum temperature (Tmax) rises as the concentration of nanohybrids grows, but the specific loss power (SLP) decreases. An increased concentration of chitosan-MCFO nanohybrids inhibits both the Néel and Brownian relaxation processes, reducing specific loss power.

Improving DNA nanostructure stability: A review of the biomedical applications and approaches

DNA's programmable, predictable, and precise self-assembly properties enable structural DNA nanotechnology. DNA nanostructures have a wide range of applications in drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, and theranostics. However, physiological conditions, including low cationic ions and the presence of nucleases in biological systems, can limit the efficacy of DNA nanostructures. Several strategies for stabilizing DNA nanostructures have been developed, including i) coating them with biomolecules or polymers, ii) chemical cross-linking of the DNA strands, and iii) modifications of the nucleotides and nucleic acids backbone. These methods significantly enhance the structural stability of DNA nanostructures and thus enable in vivo and in vitro applications. This study reviews the present perspective on the distinctive properties of the DNA molecule and explains various DNA nanostructures, their advantages, and their disadvantages. We provide a brief overview of the biomedical applications of DNA nanostructures and comprehensively discuss possible approaches to improve their biostability. Finally, the shortcomings and challenges of the current biostability approaches are examined.

Confronting antibiotic-resistant pathogens: Distinctive drug delivery potentials of progressive nanoparticles

Antimicrobial resistance arises over time, usually due to genetic modifications. Global observations of high resistance rates to popular antibiotics used to treat common bacterial diseases, such as diarrhea, STIs, sepsis, and urinary tract infections, indicate that our supply of effective antibiotics is running low. The mechanisms of action of several antibiotic groups are covered in this review. Antimicrobials disrupt the development and metabolism of bacteria, leading to their eventual death. However, in recent years, microorganisms become resistant to the drugs. Bacteria encode resistant genes against antibiotics and inhibit the function of antibiotics by reducing the uptake of drugs, modifying the enzyme's active site, synthesizing enzymes to degrade antibiotics, and changing the structure of ribosomal subunits. Additionally, the methods of action of resistant bacteria against different kinds of antibiotics as well as their modes of action are discussed. Besides, the resistant pathogenic bacteria which get the most priority by World Health Organisation (WHO) for synthesizing new drugs, have also been incorporated. To overcome antimicrobial resistance, nanomaterials are used to increase the efficacy of antimicrobial drugs. Metallic, inorganic, and polymer-based nanoparticles once conjugated with antibacterial drugs, exhibit synergistic effects by increasing the efficacy of the drugs by inhibiting bacterial growth. Nanomaterial's toxic properties are proportional to their concentrations. Higher concentration nanomaterials are more toxic to the cells. In this review, the toxic properties of nanomaterials on lung cells, lymph nodes, and neuronal cells are also summarized.

Chitosan-Based Biomaterial in Wound Healing: A Review

Wound healing is an evolving and intricate technique that is vital to the restoration of tissue integrity and function. Over the past few decades, chitosan a biopolymer derived from chitin, became known as an emerging biomaterial in the field of healing wounds due to its distinctive characteristics including biocompatibility, biodegradability, affinity to biomolecules, and wound-healing activity. This natural polymer exhibits excellent healing capabilities by accelerating the development of new skin cells, reducing inflammation, and preventing infections. Due to its distinct biochemical characteristics and innate antibacterial activity, chitosan has been extensively researched as an antibacterial wound dressing. Chronic wounds, such as diabetic ulcers and liver disease, are a growing medical problem. Chitosan-based biomaterials are a promising solution in the domain of wound care. The article analyzes the depth of chitosan-based biomaterials and their impact on wound healing and also the methods to enhance the advantages of chitosan by incorporating bioactive compounds. This literature review is aimed to improve the understanding and knowledge about biomaterials and their use in wound healing.

Fabrication and optimization of febuxostat-loaded chitosan nanocarriers for better pharmacokinetics profile

The current research was planned to enhance the bioavailability of hydrophobic drug after oral administration through the development of a nanoparticle drug delivery system (DDS). Therefore, febuxostat-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (FLC NPs) were prepared using a modified ionic gelation method and optimized the reaction conditions through the design of experiments. Design expert software was used to check the desirability of the central composite design and the interactive effects of the independent variables (chitosan concentration, ratio of chitosan to linker, and pH of the medium) on the response variables (size distribution, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency (EE)) of FLC NPs. All ingredients of the optimized formulation (formulation Q) were compatible with each other as evident from FTIR, PXRD, and TGA studies, and displayed 234.7 nm particle size, 0.158 PDI, 25.8 mV zeta potential, and 76.9 % EE. TEM, SEM, and AFM exhibited a smooth, dense, and uniform structure without any visible pores in the structure of FLC NPs. The in vitro and in vivo drug release studies described a sustained release pattern of febuxostat and increased relative bioavailability by 286.63 %. Considering these findings, this chitosan nanoparticle DDS can further be used for improving the EE and bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs.

Unveiling a pH-Responsive Dual-Androgen-Blocking Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymer for Enhanced Synergistic Therapy of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy diagnosed in men. Androgens are directly related to its pathogenesis. Inhibition of the androgen receptor (AR) is considered to be the most promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of prostate cancer. In this study, a new type of pH-responsive dual androgen-blocking nanodrug (FASC MIPs) based on a molecularly imprinted polymer has been designed and synthesized. The nanodrug could selectively sequester testosterone from the prostate tumor through specific molecular imprinting sites and simultaneously deliver the AR inhibitory drug bicalutamide, which ultimately leads to enhanced synergistic therapy of prostate cancer. FASC MIPs demonstrate excellent pH responsiveness in a simulated tumor microenvironment due to the presence of chitosan and significantly inhibit the growth of prostate cancer cells (LNCaP cells) by blocking the G1 phase of cytokinesis. Additionally, the nanodrug also displayed excellent antitumor properties in a xenograft mouse model of prostate cancer without any sign of detrimental effects on healthy tissues and organs. Both in vitro and in vivo studies verified the augmented and synergistic therapeutic effects of FASC MIPs, and the proposed dual-androgen-blocking strategy could explore novel avenues in prostate cancer treatment.

Mannose Ligands for Mannose Receptor Targeting

The mannose receptor (MR, CD 206) is an endocytic receptor primarily expressed by macrophages and dendritic cells, which plays a critical role in both endocytosis and antigen processing and presentation. MR carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) exhibit a high binding affinity for branched and linear oligosaccharides. Furthermore, multivalent mannose presentation on the various templates like peptides, proteins, polymers, micelles, and dendrimers was proven to be a valuable approach for the selective and efficient delivery of various therapeutically active agents to MR. This review provides a detailed account of the most relevant and recent aspects of the synthesis and application of mannosylated bioactive formulations for MR-mediated delivery in treatments of cancer and other infectious diseases. It further highlights recent findings related to the necessary structural features of the mannose-containing ligands for successful binding to the MR.

Dual stimuli-responsive polymeric nanoparticles combining soluplus and chitosan for enhanced breast cancer targeting

A dual stimuli-responsive nanocarrier was developed from smart biocompatible chitosan and soluplus graft copolymers. The copolymerization was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). The optimized chitosan-soluplus nanoparticles (CS-SP NPs) were further used for the encapsulation of a poorly water-soluble anticancer drug. Tamoxifen citrate (TC) was used as the model drug and it was loaded in CS-SP NPs. TC CS-SP NPs were characterized in terms of particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, and physical stability. The nanoparticles showed homogenous spherical features with a size around 94 nm, a slightly positive zeta potential, and an encapsulation efficiency around 96.66%. Dynamic light scattering (DLS), in vitro drug release, and cytotoxicity confirmed that the created nano-system is smart and exhibits pH and temperature-responsive behavior. In vitro cellular uptake was evaluated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The nanoparticles revealed a triggered increase in size upon reaching the lower critical solution temperature of SP, with 70% of drug release at acidic pH and 40 °C within the first hour and a 3.5-fold increase in cytotoxicity against MCF7 cells incubated at 40 °C. The cellular uptake study manifested that the prepared nanoparticles succeeded in delivering drug molecules to MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. In summary, the distinctive characteristics provided by these novel CS-SP NPs result in a promising nano-platform for effective drug delivery in cancer treatment.

Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles and Organoids: A Prospective Advanced Model for Pancreatic Cancer Research

Pancreatic cancer, notorious for its grim 10% five-year survival rate, poses significant clinical challenges, largely due to late-stage diagnosis and limited therapeutic options. This review delves into the generation of organoids, including those derived from resected tissues, biopsies, pluripotent stem cells, and adult stem cells, as well as the advancements in 3D printing. It explores the complexities of the tumor microenvironment, emphasizing culture media, the integration of non-neoplastic cells, and angiogenesis. Additionally, the review examines the multifaceted properties of graphene oxide (GO), such as its mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical attributes, and their implications in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. GO's unique properties facilitate its interaction with tumors, allowing targeted drug delivery and enhanced imaging for early detection and treatment. The integration of GO with 3D cultured organoid systems, particularly in pancreatic cancer research, is critically analyzed, highlighting current limitations and future potential. This innovative approach has the promise to transform personalized medicine, improve drug screening efficiency, and aid biomarker discovery in this aggressive disease. Through this review, we offer a balanced perspective on the advancements and future prospects in pancreatic cancer research, harnessing the potential of organoids and GO.

Nanoparticle-enhanced postbiotics: Revolutionizing cancer therapy through effective delivery

AIM

Gastric cancer contributes to cancer-related fatalities. Conventional chemotherapy faces challenges due to severe adverse effects, prompting recent research to focus on postbiotics, which are safer biomolecules derived from nonviable probiotics. Despite promising in vitro results, efficient in vivo delivery systems remain a challenge. This study aimed to design a potential nanoparticle (NP) formulation encapsulating the Lacticaseibacillus paracasei GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) isolate to enhance its therapeutic efficacy in treating gastric cancer.

MAIN METHODS

We successfully isolated GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) by optimizing the lysate extraction and column elution processes for L. paracasei GMNL-133, resulting in substantial enhancement of its capacity to inhibit the proliferation of gastric cancer cells. Additionally, we developed a potential NP utilizing arginine-chitosan and fucoidan encapsulating SGMNL-133.

KEY FINDINGS

This innovative approach protected the SGMNL-133 from degradation by gastric acid, facilitated its penetration through the mucus layer, and enabled interaction with gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments demonstrated that the encapsulation of SGMNL-133 in NPs significantly enhanced its efficacy in the treatment of orthotopic gastric tumors while simultaneously reducing tissue inflammation levels.

SIGNIFICANCE

Recent research highlights postbiotics as a safe alternative, but in vivo delivery remains a challenge. Our study optimized the extraction of the lysate and column elution of GMNL-133, yielding SGMNL-133. We also developed NPs to protect SGMNL-133 from gastric acid, enhance mucus penetration, and improve the interaction with gastric cancer cells. This combination significantly enhanced drug delivery and anti-gastric tumor activity.

Design of Dosage Forms with Improved Biopharmaceutical Properties

The development of a pharmaceutical product consists of giving a drug an optimal dosage form (a certain state of aggregation, consistency, structural, mechanical, physicochemical, and functional properties), which ensure stability, the possibility of accurate dosage, the required pharmacological effect, and ease of administration with minimal side effects [...].

Enhanced dissolution of anticancer drug letrozole from mesoporous zeolite clinoptilolite

High dissolution of anticancer drugs directly adsorbed onto porous carriers is indispensable for the development of drug delivery systems with high bioavailability. We report direct adsorption/loading of the anticancer drug letrozole (LTZ) onto the clinoptilolite (CLI) zeolite after the surface activation.In vitroLTZ dissolution from the CLI zeolites reached 95 % after 23 h in an acidic medium, being faster than the dissolution of the pure LTZ molecules. Fast dissolution occurs due to uniform exposure of the LTZ onto the external surface of the CLI zeolites, being accessible to the solvent for dissolution. On the other hand, the LTZ molecules were hidden in the bulk phase, giving a slow dissolution rate. Small positive value of the CLI/LTZ adsorption energy of 0.06 eV suggests that the release process is favourable in aqueous media. The main merit of the CLI/LTZ system is its quick onset of action and high bioavailability. This work demonstrates a possibility of enhancement of the dissolution of poorly soluble LTZ from the CLI zeolite, being promising for the further development of drug delivery systems.

Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Ferroelectricity in Biomaterials and Biomedical Applications

Piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric materials are considered unique biomedical materials due to their dielectric crystals and asymmetric centers that allow them to directly convert various primary forms of energy in the environment, such as sunlight, mechanical energy, and thermal energy, into secondary energy, such as electricity and chemical energy. These materials possess exceptional energy conversion ability and excellent catalytic properties, which have led to their widespread usage within biomedical fields. Numerous biomedical applications have demonstrated great potential with these materials, including disease treatment, biosensors, and tissue engineering. For example, piezoelectric materials are used to stimulate cell growth in bone regeneration, while pyroelectric materials are applied in skin cancer detection and imaging. Ferroelectric materials have even found use in neural implants that record and stimulate electrical activity in the brain. This paper reviews the relationship between ferroelectric, piezoelectric, and pyroelectric effects and the fundamental principles of different catalytic reactions. It also highlights the preparation methods of these three materials and the significant progress made in their biomedical applications. The review concludes by presenting key challenges and future prospects for efficient catalysts based on piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric nanomaterials for biomedical applications.

Key Fabrications of Chitosan Nanoparticles for Effective Drug Delivery Using Flow Chemistry Reactors

Introduction

Chitosan nanoparticles have garnered considerable interest in the field of drug delivery owing to their distinctive properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and ability to encapsulate a wide range of drugs. However, the conventional methods (eg, the drop method) for synthesizing chitosan nanoparticles often face limitations in regard to controlling the particle size, morphology, and scalability, hindering their extensive application in drug delivery systems. To overcome these challenges, this study explores using a novel flow chemistry reactor design for fabricating clindamycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles.

Methods

By varying two critical operating parameters of flow chemistry, namely, the flow rate ratio and total flow rate, the impact of these parameters on the properties of chitosan nanoparticles is investigated using a central composite experimental design.

Results

The optimized conditions for nanoparticle preparation yielded remarkable results, with chitosan nanoparticles exhibiting a small size of 371.60 nm and an extremely low polydispersity index of 0.042. Furthermore, using novel design flow chemistry reactor, the productivity of chitosan nanoparticles was estimated to be 25,402.17 mg/min, which was ~12.71 times higher than that obtained via batch synthesis.

Conclusion

The findings of this study indicate that the use of novel design flow chemistry reactor is promising for synthesizing clindamycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles and other polymeric nanoparticles intended for drug delivery applications. This is primarily attributed to their ability to produce nanoparticles with a considerably reduced particle size distribution and smaller overall size. The demonstrated high productivity of this technique suggests the potential for industrial-scale nanoparticle manufacturing.

Cationic Porphyrins as Antimicrobial and Antiviral Agents in Photodynamic Therapy

Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) has received a great deal of attention due to its unique ability to kill all currently known classes of microorganisms. To date, infectious diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are one of the main sources of high mortality, mass epidemics and global pandemics among humans. Every year, the emergence of three to four previously unknown species of viruses dangerous to humans is recorded, totaling more than 2/3 of all newly discovered human pathogens. The emergence of bacteria with multidrug resistance leads to the rapid obsolescence of antibiotics and the need to create new types of antibiotics. From this point of view, photodynamic inactivation of viruses and bacteria is of particular interest. This review summarizes the most relevant mechanisms of antiviral and antibacterial action of APDT, molecular targets and correlation between the structure of cationic porphyrins and their photodynamic activity.

Investigating the Correlation Between Drug Physical Properties and Physical Characteristics and Drug Entrapment Efficiencies of Chitosan-TPP Nanoparticles

Chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) have been the subject of intensive research. This study aimed to determine how different drug characteristics such as molecular weights, drug solubility in the processing medium, and drug ionization/charge state affected chitosan NPs particularly their percentage entrapment efficiency (% EE) and mean hydrodynamic diameters (MHDs). Drugs with varying molecular weights but of similar aqueous solubilities were chosen and were dissolved in a 2% chitosan-acetic acid solution. Chitosan NPs were formed using by ionic gelation technique using sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) at specific concentration and volume ratios of chitosan to TPP. NPs containing Enalapril and Paracetamol displayed better short-term stability in terms of MHDs. A direct relationship between MHDs of NPs and chitosan concentrations was found. In comparison, at both low and high admixed drug concentrations and at high chitosan concentration, larger NPs sizes were associated with the lower molecular weight drug (Paracetamol). However, the study did not demonstrate a direct relationship between NPs characteristics such as MHDs and drugs molecular weights. The ZP of Paracetamol-loaded NPs was lowest at high drug concentrations at all chitosan concentrations compared to other drugs-loaded NPs. When compared to drugs with high and low molecular weights, medium molecular weight Atenolol showed the highest % EE. This clearly indicated that there was no direct correlation between drug molecular weight and % EE, but rather other factors influenced on % EE. Nevertheless, an inverse linear relationship with high correlation coefficients was only found when % EE was plotted against each drug molecular weight divided by the ratio of drugs solubilities in acetic acid to their employed concentrations, however the correlation was inconsistent between drugs of varying molecular weights.

Development and Functionalization of a Novel Chitosan-Based Nanosystem for Enhanced Drug Delivery

Nowadays, infection diseases are one of the most significant threats to humans all around the world. An encouraging strategy for solving this issue and fighting resistant microorganisms is to develop drug carriers for a prolonged release of the antibiotic to the target site. The purpose of this work was to obtain metronidazole-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles using an ion gelation route and to evaluate their properties. Due to the advantages of the ionic gelation method, the synthesized polymeric nanoparticles can be applied in various fields, especially pharmaceutical and medical. Loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency varFied depending on the amount of antibiotic in each formulation. Physicochemical characterization using scanning electron microscopy revealed a narrow particle size distribution where 90% of chitosan particles were 163.7 nm in size and chitosan-loaded metronidazole nanoparticles were 201.3 nm in size, with a zeta potential value of 36.5 mV. IR spectra revealed characteristic peaks of the drug and polymer nanoparticles. Cell viability assessment revealed that samples have no significant impact on tested cells. Release analysis showed that metronidazole was released from the chitosan matrix for 24 h in a prolonged course, implying that antibiotic-encapsulated polymer nanostructures are a promising drug delivery system to prevent or to treat various diseases. It is desirable to obtain new formulations based on drugs encapsulated in nanoparticles through different preparation methods, with reduced cytotoxic potential, in order to improve the therapeutic effect through sustained and prolonged release mechanisms of the drug correlated with the reduction of adverse effects.

Diruthenium(II-III)-ibuprofen-loaded chitosan-based microparticles and nanoparticles systems: encapsulation, characterisation, anticancer activity of the nanoformulations against U87MG human glioma cells

The aim of this work was to investigate novel formulations containing diruthenium(II-III)-ibuprofen (RuIbp) metallodrug encapsulated into the chitosan (CT) biopolymer. Microparticles (RuIbp/CT MPs, ∼ 1 µm) were prepared by spray-drying, and RuIbp/CT-crosslinked nanoparticles (NPs) by ionic gelation (RuIbp/CT-TPP, TPP = tripolyphosphate (1), RuIbp/CT-TPP-PEG, PEG = poly(ethyleneglycol (2)) or pre-gel/polyelectrolyte complex method (RuIbp/CT-ALG, ALG = alginate (3)). Ru analysis was conducted by energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence or inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and physicochemical characterisation by powder x-ray diffraction, electronic absorption and FTIR spectroscopies, electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry, thermal analysis, scanning electron, transition electron and atomic force microscopies, and dynamic light scattering. The RuIbp-loaded nanosystems exhibited encapsulation efficiency ∼ 20-37%, drug loading∼ 10-20% (w/w), hydrodynamic diameter (nm): 103.2 ± 7.9 (1), 91.7 ± 12.6 (2), 270.2 ± 58.4 (3), zeta potential (mV): +(47.7 ± 2.8) (1), +(49.2 ± 3.6) (2), -(28.2 ± 2.0) (3). Nanoformulation (1) showed the highest cytotoxicity with increased efficacy in relation to the RuIbp free metallodrug against U87MG human glioma cells.

Synthesis and Characterization of Antibacterial Chitosan Films with Ciprofloxacin in Acidic Conditions

This work presents the results of research on obtaining chitosan (CS) films containing on their surface ciprofloxacin (CIP). A unique structure was obtained that not only gives new properties to the films, but also changes the way of coverage and structure of the surface. The spectroscopic test showed that in the process of application of CIP on the surface of CS film, CIP was converted from its crystalline form to an amorphic one, hence improving its bioavailability. This improved its scope of microbiological effect. The research was carried out on the reduction of CIP concentration during the process of CIP adhesion to the surface of chitosan films. The antibacterial activity of the CS films with and without the drug was evaluated in relation to Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as Candida albicans and Penicillium expansum. Changes in the morphology and roughness of membrane surfaces after the antibacterial molecule adhesion process were tested with atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Structural analysis of CS and its modifications were confirmed with Fourier-transform spectroscopy in the infrared by an attenuated total reflectance of IR radiation (FTIR-ATR) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

Preparation of chitosan nanoparticles for simultaneous drug delivery of dacarbazine and enoxaparin in melanoma

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-melanoma and anti-angiogenic effects of enoxaparin surface-coated dacarbazine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Enox-Dac-Chi NPs). The prepared Enox-Dac-Chi NPs had a particle size of 367.95 ± 1.84 nm, zeta potential of -7.12 ± 0.25 mV, efficiency of drug loading (DL%) of 73.90 ± 3.84 %, and attached enoxaparin percentage of 98.53 ± 0.96 %. Both drugs had extended-release profiles and approximately 96 % of enoxaparin and 67 % dacarbazine were released within 8 h. The Enox-Dac-Chi NPs with IC₅₀ of 59.60 ± 1.25 μg/ml were the most cytotoxic against melanoma cancer cells compared with chitosan nanoparticles containing only dacarbazine (Dac-Chi NPs) and free dacarbazine. There was no significant difference between the cellular uptake of Chi NPs and enoxaparin coated Chi NPs (Enox-Chi NPs) in B16F10 cells. Enox-Chi NPs with an average anti-angiogenic score of 1.75 ± 0.125 had more anti-angiogenic effect than enoxaparin. The results showed that simultaneous delivery of dacarbazine and enoxaparin by chitosan nanoparticles can enhance the anti-melanoma effect of dacarbazine. Additionally, enoxaparin can prevent the melanoma metastasis by its anti-angiogenic activity. Thus, the designed nanoparticles can be introduced as effective drug delivery vehicles for the treatment and prevention of metastatic melanoma.

Cationic Chitosan Derivatives for the Inactivation of HIV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 Enveloped Viruses

Cationic chitosan derivatives have been widely studied as potential antimicrobial agents. However, very little is known about their antiviral activity and mode of action against enveloped viruses. We investigated the ability of hydroxypropanoic acid-grafted chitosan (HPA-CS) and N-(2-hydroxypropyl)-3-trimethylammonium chitosan chloride (HTCC) to inactivate enveloped viruses like the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The membrane-disrupting potential of the chitosan derivatives was initially investigated in a hemolysis assay. At 1.0 mg/mL, about 80% hemolysis was observed for the cationic chitosan derivatives, which was significant when compared to almost no membrane-disrupting activity by the unmodified chitosan. Virus inhibition was evaluated using the luciferase-based antiviral assay against the HIV-1 NL4.3 virus (400 TCID). The IC50 of HPA-CS was 4.109 mg/mL, while the HTCC showed a higher antiviral activity at an IC50 = 0.225 mg/mL. For practical application, the antiviral efficacies of the HTCC-coated and uncoated nonmedical masks were evaluated for SARS- CoV-2 virus capture. The coated masks demonstrated an almost excellent performance with nearly 100% viral inhibition compared to less than 60% inhibition by the uncoated masks. Molecular docking predictions suggest that the HTCC polymers interact with the viral spike protein, blocking the coronavirus interaction with the target host cell's angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 cellular receptors.

Synthesis of chitosan based reduced graphene oxide-CeO2 nanocomposites for drug delivery and antibacterial applications

In this study, the unique characteristics of chitosan, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and cerium oxide (CeO2) based hybrid bionano-composites make a carrier for various drug delivery and antimicrobial applications. The recent literatures shown that addition of biopolymers to rGO and CeO2 based nanocomposites exhibit excellent performance in design and development of biosensors, wound dressings, electrodes, microfluidic chips, drug delivery systems and energy storage applications. Chitosan (CS), reduced graphene oxide (rGO) mixed with cerium oxide (CeO2) to form CS-rGO and CS-rGO-CeO2 hybrid bionano-composites using precipitation method. The physiochemical characterization of casted nanocomposite sheet was done using FTIR, XRD, UV-Vis spectrum, SEM and TGA. The XRD results of CS-rGO-CeO2 revealed that the nanoparticle was found to be crystalline structure. FTIR revealed that nitrogen functionalities of CS interacted with rGO-CeO2 to form hybrid nanocomposites. The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the CS-rGO-CeO2 has better thermal stability up to 550 °C. The SEM confirms the surface morphology of CS-rGO-CeO2 has large surface area with smooth surface. Moreover, the antibacterial properties of nanocomposites exhibit excellent zone of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The NIH3T3 cell line evaluations showed superior cell adhesion on hybrid nanocomposites. Hence bionano-composite based on CS, rGO and CeO2 are potential biomaterials for drug delivery and antibacterial applications.

Current Status and Trends in Nucleic Acids for Cancer Therapy: A Focus on Polysaccharide-Based Nanomedicines

The efficacious delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to cancer still remains an open issue. Through the years, several strategies are developed for the encapsulation of genetic molecules exploiting different materials, such as viral vectors, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). Indeed, the rapid approval by regulatory authorities and the wide use of LNPs complexing the mRNA coding for the spark protein for COVID-19 vaccination paved the way for the initiation of several clinical trials exploiting lipid nanoparticles for cancer therapy. Nevertheless, polymers still represent a valuable alternative to lipid-based formulations, due to the low cost and the chemical flexibility that allows for the conjugation of targeting ligands. This review will analyze the status of the ongoing clinical trials for cancer therapy, including vaccination and immunotherapy approaches, exploiting polymeric materials. Among those nanosized carriers, sugar-based backbones are an interesting category. A cyclodextrin-based carrier (CALAA-01) is the first polymeric material to enter a clinical trial complexed with siRNA for cancer therapy, and chitosan is one of the most characterized non-viral vectors able to complex genetic material. Finally, the recent advances in the use of sugar-based polymers (oligo- and polysaccharides) for the complexation of nucleic acids in advanced preclinical stage will be discussed.

Impact of nanocarrier aggregation on EPR-mediated tumor targeting

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of excipients on retaining the particle size of methotrexate (MTX) loaded chitosan nanocarriers (CsNP) during lyophilization, which relates to the ability to enlarge the particle size and target specific areas. The nanocarriers were prepared using the ionic gelation technique with tripolyphosphate as a crosslinker. Three lyophilized formulations were used: nanosuspension without Lyoprotectant (NF), with mannitol (NFM), and with sucrose (NFS). The lyophilized powder intended for injection (PI) was examined to assess changes in particle size, product integrity, and comparative biodistribution studies to evaluate targeting ability. After lyophilization, NFS was excluded from in-vivo studies due to the product melt-back phenomenon. The particle size of the NF lyophile significantly increased from 176 nm to 261 nm. In contrast, NFM restricted the nanocarrier size to 194 nm and exhibited excellent cake properties. FTIR, XRD, and SEM analysis revealed the transformation of mannitol into a stable β, δ polymorphic form. Biodistribution studies showed that the nanocarriers significantly increased MTX accumulation in tumor tissue (NF = 2.04 ± 0.27; NFM = 2.73 ± 0.19) compared to the marketed PI (1.45 ± 0.25 μg), but this effect was highly dependent on the particle size. Incorporating mannitol yielded positive results in restricting particle size and favoring successful tumor targeting. This study demonstrates the potential of chitosan nanocarriers as promising candidates for targeted tumor drug delivery and cancer treatment.

Chitosan-Based Nano Systems for Natural Antioxidants in Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer is a major cause of death globally, accounting for around 13% of all deaths. Chemotherapy, the common treatment for cancer, can have side effects that lead to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an increase in oxidative stress in the body. Antioxidants are important for maintaining the health of cells and helping the immune system function properly. They play a crucial role in balancing the body's internal environment. Using natural antioxidants is an alternative to mitigate the harmful effects of oxidative stress. However, around 80% of natural antioxidants have limited effectiveness when taken orally because they do not dissolve well in water or other solvents. This poor solubility affects their ability to be absorbed by the body and limits their bioavailability. One strategy that has been considered is to increase their water solubility to increase their oral bioavailability. Chitosan-based nanoparticle (CSNP) systems have been extensively explored due to their reliability and simpler synthesis routes. This review focuses on the various methods of chitosan-based nanoformulation for developing effective oral dosage forms for natural antioxidants based on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics properties. Chitosan (CS) could be a model, because of its wide use in polymeric NPs research, thus providing a better understanding of the role of vehicles that carry natural antioxidants in maintaining the stability and enhancing the performance of cancer drugs.

Evaluation of Novel B1R/B2R Agonists Containing TRIOZAN™ Nanoparticles for Targeted Brain Delivery of Antibodies in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer Disease

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major obstacle to the development of effective therapeutics for central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). This has been particularly true in the case of monoclonal antibody (mAbs) therapeutic candidates, due to their large size. To tackle this issue, we developed new nanoformulations, comprising bio-based Triozan polymers along with kinin B1 and B2 receptor (B1R and B2R) peptide agonist analogues, as potent BBB-permeabilizers to enhance brain delivery of a new anti-C1q mAb for AD (ANX005). The prepared B1R/B2R-TRIOZAN™ nanoparticles (NPs) displayed aqueous solubility, B1R/B2R binding capacity and uniform sizes (~130-165 nm). The relative biodistribution profiles of the mAb loaded into these NPs versus the naked mAb were assessed in vivo through two routes of administrations (intravenous (IV), intranasal (IN)) in the Tg-SwDI mouse model of AD. At 24 h post-administration, brain levels of the encapsulated mAb were significantly increased (up to 12-fold (IV) and 5-fold (IN), respectively) compared with free mAb in AD brain affected regions, entorhinal cortex and hippocampus of aged mice. Liver uptakes remained relatively low with similar values for the nanoformulations and free mAb. Our findings demonstrate the potential of B1R/B2R-TRIOZAN™ NPs for the targeted delivery of new CNS drugs, which could maximize their therapeutic effectiveness.

Application of polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan copolymer hydrogels in biomedicine: A review

Hydrogels is a hydrophilic, cross-linked polymer of three-dimensional network structures. The application of hydrogels prepared from a single polymer in the biomedical field has many drawbacks. The functional blend of polyvinyl alcohol and chitosan allows hydrogels to have better and more desirable properties than those produced from a single polymer, which is a good biomaterial for development and design. In this paper, we have reviewed the progress in the application of polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan composite hydrogels in various medical fields, the different cross-linking agents and cross-linking methods, and the research progress in the optimization of composite hydrogels for their subsequent wide range of biomedical applications.

Green synthesis of chitosan/polyacrylic acid/graphitic carbon nitride nanocarrier as a potential pH-sensitive system for curcumin delivery to MCF-7 breast cancer cells

A novel pH-sensitive nanocarrier containing chitosan (CS), polyacrylic acid (PAA), and graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) was designed via water/oil/water (W/O/W) emulsification to administer curcumin (CUR) drug. g-C₃N₄ nanosheets with a high surface area and porous structure were produced via simple one-step pyrolysis process using thiourea as precursor, and incorporated into CS/PAA hydrogel. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were used to assess the crystalline structure of the nanocarrier and the interactions between its components, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed a spherical structure and confirmed the g-C₃N₄ impregnation into the CS/PAA matrix. Zeta potential and dynamic light scattering (DLS) provided information about the surface charge and average size distribution. High CUR loading and entrapment efficiencies were obtained, which were further improved upon addition of g-C₃N₄. The release kinetics of drug-loaded CS/PAA/g-C₃N₄ nanocomposites were investigated at pH = 5.4 and pH = 7.4, and the results showed an excellent controlled pH-sensitive release profile. Cell apoptosis and in vitro cytotoxicity were investigated using flow cytometry and MTT analyses. CS/PAA/g-C₃N₄/CUR resulted in the highest rate of apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, demonstrating the excellent nanocomposite efficacy in eliminating cancerous cells. CS/PAA hydrogel coated with g-C₃N₄ shows great potential for pH-sensitive controlled drug release.

In Situ Encapsulation of Camptothecin by Self-Assembly of Poly(acrylic acid)-b-Poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) and Chitosan for Controlled Drug Delivery

Camptothecin (CPT) has been shown to exhibit anticancer activity against several cancers. Nevertheless, CPT is very hydrophobic with poor stability, and thus its medical application is limited. Therefore, various drug carriers have been exploited for effectively delivering CPT to the targeted cancer site. In this study, a dual pH/thermo-responsive block copolymer of poly(acrylic acid-b-N-isopropylacrylamide) (PAA-b-PNP) was synthesized and applied to encapsulate CPT. At temperatures above its cloud point, the block copolymer self-assembled to form nanoparticles (NPs) and in situ encapsulate CPT, owing to their hydrophobic interaction as evidenced by fluorescence spectrometry. Chitosan (CS) was further applied on the surface through the formation of a polyelectrolyte complex with PAA for improving biocompatibility. The average particle size and zeta potential of the developed PAA-b-PNP/CPT/CS NPs in a buffer solution were 168 nm and -30.6 mV, respectively. These NPs were still stable at least for 1 month. The PAA-b-PNP/CS NPs exhibited good biocompatibility toward NIH 3T3 cells. Moreover, they could protect the CPT at pH 2.0 with a very slow-release rate. At pH 6.0, these NPs could be internalized by Caco-2 cells, followed by intracellular release of the CPT. They became highly swollen at pH 7.4, and the released CPT was able to diffuse into the cells at higher intensity. Among several cancer cell lines, the highest cytotoxicity was observed for H460 cells. As a result, these environmentally-responsive NPs have the potential to be applied in oral administration.

Metformin and curcumin co-encapsulated chitosan/alginate nanoparticles as effective oral carriers against pain-like behaviors in mice

Nanotechnology plays an integral role in multimodal analgesia. In this study, we co-encapsulated metformin (Met) and curcumin (Cur) into chitosan/alginate (CTS/ALG) nanoparticles (NPs) at their synergistic drug ratio by applying response surface methodology. The optimized Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs were achieved with Pluronic® F-127 2.33% (w/v), Met 5.91 mg, and CTS:ALG mass ratio 0.05:1. The prepared Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs had 243 nm particle size, -21.6 mV zeta potential, 32.6 and 44.2% Met and Cur encapsulations, 19.6 and 6.8% Met and Cur loading, respectively, and 2.9:1 Met:Cur mass ratio. Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs displayed stability under simulated gastrointestinal (GI) fluid conditions and during storage. In vitro release study of Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs in simulated GI fluids showed sustained release, with Met exhibiting Fickian diffusion and Cur demonstrating non-Fickian diffusion following the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs exhibited increased mucoadhesion and improved cellular uptake in Caco-2 cells. Additionally, Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs exhibited better anti-inflammatory effects in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage and BV-2 microglial cells than the equivalent amount of the Met-Cur physical mixture, indicating a greater ability to modulate peripheral and central immune mechanisms of pain. In the mouse formalin-induced pain model, Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs administered orally exhibited better attenuation of pain-like behaviors and proinflammatory cytokine release compared to the Met-Cur physical mixture. Furthermore, Met-Cur-CTS/ALG-NPs did not induce significant side effects in mice at therapeutic doses. Altogether, the present study establishes a CTS/ALG nano-delivery system for Met-Cur combination against pain with improved efficacy and safety.

L-Asparaginase delivery systems targeted to minimize its side-effects

L-asparaginase (L-ASP) is one of the key enzymes used in therapeutic applications, particularly to treat Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL). L-asparagine is a non-essential amino acid, which means that it can be synthesized by the body and is not required to be obtained through the diet. The synthesis of L-asparagine occurs primarily in the liver, but it also takes place in other tissues throughout the body. In contrast, leukemic cells cannot synthesize L-asparagine due the absence of L-asparagine synthetase and should obtain it from circulating sources for protein synthesis and cell division processes to ensure their vital functions. L-ASP catalyzes the deamination process of L-asparagine amino-acid into aspartic acid and ammonia, depriving leukemic cells of asparagine. This leads to decreased protein synthesis and cell division in tumor cells. However, using L-ASP has side effects, such as hypersensitivity or allergic reaction, antigenicity, short half-life, temporary blood clearance, and toxicity. L-ASP immobilization can minimize the side effects of L-ASP by stopping the immune system from attacking non-human enzymes and improving the enzyme's performance. The first strategy includes modification of enzyme structure, such as covalent binding (conjugation), adsorption to the support material and cross-linking of the enzyme. The chemical modification of residues, often nonspecific, changes the enzyme's hydrophobicity and surface charge, lowering the enzyme's activity. Also, the first strategy exposes the enzyme's surface to the environment. This eliminates its performance and does not allow targeted delivery of the enzyme. The second strategy is based on the entrapment of the enzyme inside the protecting structure or encapsulation. This strategy offers the same benefits as the first. Still, it also enables reducing toxicity, prolonging in vivo half-life, enhancing stability and activity, enables a targeted delivery and controlled release of the enzyme. Compared to the first strategy, encapsulation does not modify the chemical structure of the enzyme since L-ASP is only effective against leukemia in its native tetrameric form. This review aims to present state of the art in L-ASP formulations developed for reducing the side effects of L-ASP, focusing on describing improvements in their safety. The primary focus in the field remains to be improving the overall performance of the L-ASP formulations. Almost all encapsulation systems allow reducing immune response due to screening the enzyme from antibodies and prolonging its half-life. However, the enzyme's activity and stability depend on the encapsulation system type. Therefore, the selection of the right encapsulation system is crucial in therapy due to its effect on the performance parameters of the L-ASP. Biodegradable and biocompatible materials, such as chitosan, alginate and liposomes, mainly attract the researcher's interest in enzyme encapsulation. The research trends are also moving towards developing formulations with targeted delivery and increased selectivity.