1
|
Zhang WX, Huang J, Tian XY, Liu YH, Jia MQ, Wang W, Jin CY, Song J, Zhang SY. A review of progress in o-aminobenzamide-based HDAC inhibitors with dual targeting capabilities for cancer therapy. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 259:115673. [PMID: 37487305 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
Histone deacetylases, as a new class of anticancer targets, could maintain homeostasis by catalyzing histone deacetylation and play important roles in regulating the expression of target genes. Due to the fact that simultaneous intervention with dual tumor related targets could improve treatment effects, researches on innovative design of dual-target drugs are underway. HDAC is known as a "sensitizer" for the synergistic effects with other anticancer-target drugs because of its flexible structure design. The synergistic effects of HDAC inhibitor and other target inhibitors usually show enhanced inhibitory effects on tumor cells, and also provide new strategies to overcome multidrug resistance. Many research groups have reported that simultaneously inhibiting HDAC and other targets, such as tubulin, EGFR, could enhance the therapeutic effects. The o-aminobenzamide group is often used as a ZBG group in the design of HDAC inhibitors with potent antitumor effects. Given the prolonged inhibitory effects and reduced toxic side effects of HDAC inhibitors using o-aminobenzamide as the ZBG group, the o-aminobenzamide group is expected to become a more promising alternative to hydroxamic acid. In fact, o-aminobenzamide-based dual inhibitors of HDAC with different chemical structures have been extensively prepared and reported with synergistic and enhanced anti-tumor effects. In this work, we first time reviewed the rational design, molecular docking, inhibitory activities and potential application of o-aminobenzamide-based HDAC inhibitors with dual targeting capabilities in cancer therapy, which might provide a reference for developing new and more effective anticancer drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Xin Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Drug Discovery & Development, Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies (Ministry of Education), Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jiao Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Drug Discovery & Development, Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies (Ministry of Education), Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Xin-Yi Tian
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Yun-He Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Drug Discovery & Development, Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies (Ministry of Education), Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Mei-Qi Jia
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Wang Wang
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Organic Functional Molecules, College of Food and Drug, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang, 471934, China
| | - Cheng-Yun Jin
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Drug Discovery & Development, Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies (Ministry of Education), Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jian Song
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
| | - Sai-Yang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jacobson KA, Suresh RR, Oliva P. A 2A adenosine receptor agonists, antagonists, inverse agonists and partial agonists. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 170:1-27. [PMID: 37741687 PMCID: PMC10775762 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2023]
Abstract
The Gs-coupled A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR) has been explored extensively as a pharmaceutical target, which has led to numerous clinical trials. However, only one selective A2AAR agonist (regadenoson, Lexiscan) and one selective A2AAR antagonist (istradefylline, Nouriast) have been approved by the FDA, as a pharmacological agent for myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) and as a cotherapy for Parkinson's disease (PD), respectively. Adenosine is widely used in MPI, as Adenoscan. Despite numerous unsuccessful clinical trials, medicinal chemical activity around A2AAR ligands has accelerated recently, particularly through structure-based drug design. New drug-like A2AAR antagonists for PD and cancer immunotherapy have been identified, and many clinical trials have ensued. For example, imaradenant (AZD4635), a compound that was designed computationally, based on A2AAR X-ray structures and biophysical mapping. Mixed A2AAR/A2BAR antagonists are also hopeful for cancer treatment. A2AAR antagonists may also have potential as neuroprotective agents for treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A Jacobson
- Molecular Recognition Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States.
| | - R Rama Suresh
- Molecular Recognition Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Paola Oliva
- Molecular Recognition Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang J, Feng D, Cheng J, Wüthrich K. Adenosine A 2A Receptor (A 2AAR) Ligand Screening Using the 19F-NMR Probe FPPA. J Am Chem Soc 2023. [PMID: 37276462 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c04218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The binding affinity of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) ligands is customarily measured by radio-ligand competition experiments. As an alternative approach, 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (19F-NMR) is used for the screening of small-molecule lead compounds in drug discovery; the two methods are complementary in that the measurements are performed with widely different experimental conditions. Here, we used the structure of the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR) complex with V-2006 (3-(4-amino-3-methylbenzyl)-7-(furan-2-yl)-3H-[1,2,3]triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidin-5-amine) as the basis for the design of a fluorine-containing probe molecule, FPPA (4-(furan-2-yl)-7-(4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyramidin-2-amine), for binding studies with A2AAR. A protocol of experimental conditions for drug screening and measurements of drug binding affinities using 1D 19F-NMR observation of FPPA is validated with studies of known A2AAR ligands. 19F-NMR with FPPA is thus found to be a robust approach for the discovery of ligands with new core structures, which will expand the libraries of A2AAR-targeting drug candidates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinfeng Zhang
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Dandan Feng
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Jianjun Cheng
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Kurt Wüthrich
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- Department of Integrated Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zahavi D, Hodge JW. Targeting Immunosuppressive Adenosine Signaling: A Review of Potential Immunotherapy Combination Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24108871. [PMID: 37240219 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24108871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment regulates many aspects of cancer progression and anti-tumor immunity. Cancer cells employ a variety of immunosuppressive mechanisms to dampen immune cell function in the tumor microenvironment. While immunotherapies that target these mechanisms, such as immune checkpoint blockade, have had notable clinical success, resistance is common, and there is an urgent need to identify additional targets. Extracellular adenosine, a metabolite of ATP, is found at high levels in the tumor microenvironment and has potent immunosuppressive properties. Targeting members of the adenosine signaling pathway represents a promising immunotherapeutic modality that can potentially synergize with conventional anti-cancer treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss the role of adenosine in cancer, present preclinical and clinical data on the efficacy adenosine pathway inhibition, and discuss possible combinatorial approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Zahavi
- Center for Immuno-Oncology (CIO), Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 10, Rm 8B13, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20879, USA
| | - James W Hodge
- Center for Immuno-Oncology (CIO), Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 10, Rm 8B13, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20879, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mlambo R, Liu J, Wang Q, Tan S, Chen C. Receptors Involved in Mental Disorders and the Use of Clozapine, Chlorpromazine, Olanzapine, and Aripiprazole to Treat Mental Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16040603. [PMID: 37111360 PMCID: PMC10142280 DOI: 10.3390/ph16040603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mental illnesses are a global health challenge, and effective medicines are needed to treat these conditions. Psychotropic drugs are commonly prescribed to manage mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, but unfortunately, they can cause significant and undesirable side effects, such as myocarditis, erectile dysfunction, and obesity. Furthermore, some schizophrenic patients may not respond to psychotropic drugs, a condition called schizophrenia-treatment resistance. Fortunately, clozapine is a promising option for patients who exhibit treatment resistance. Unlike chlorpromazine, scientists have found that clozapine has fewer neurological side effects. Additionally, olanzapine and aripiprazole are well-known for their moderating effects on psychosis and are widely used in clinical practice. To further maximize drug efficacy, it is critical to deeply understand the receptors or signaling pathways central to the nervous system, such as serotonin, histamine, trace amines, dopamine, and G-protein coupled receptors. This article provides an overview of the receptors mentioned above, as well as the antipsychotics that interact with them, such as olanzapine, aripiprazole, clozapine, and chlorpromazine. Additionally, this article discusses the general pharmacology of these medications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Mlambo
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Songwen Tan
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Chuanpin Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Said SS, Ibrahim WN. Cancer Resistance to Immunotherapy: Comprehensive Insights with Future Perspectives. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15041143. [PMID: 37111629 PMCID: PMC10141036 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15041143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is a type of treatment that harnesses the power of the immune systems of patients to target cancer cells with better precision compared to traditional chemotherapy. Several lines of treatment have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and have led to remarkable success in the treatment of solid tumors, such as melanoma and small-cell lung cancer. These immunotherapies include checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, and vaccines, while the chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell treatment has shown better responses in hematological malignancies. Despite these breakthrough achievements, the response to treatment has been variable among patients, and only a small percentage of cancer patients gained from this treatment, depending on the histological type of tumor and other host factors. Cancer cells develop mechanisms to avoid interacting with immune cells in these circumstances, which has an adverse effect on how effectively they react to therapy. These mechanisms arise either due to intrinsic factors within cancer cells or due other cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). When this scenario is used in a therapeutic setting, the term “resistance to immunotherapy” is applied; “primary resistance” denotes a failure to respond to treatment from the start, and “secondary resistance” denotes a relapse following the initial response to immunotherapy. Here, we provide a thorough summary of the internal and external mechanisms underlying tumor resistance to immunotherapy. Furthermore, a variety of immunotherapies are briefly discussed, along with recent developments that have been employed to prevent relapses following treatment, with a focus on upcoming initiatives to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy for cancer patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sawsan Sudqi Said
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar
| | - Wisam Nabeel Ibrahim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Liu R, Duan W, Yan W, Zhang J, Cheng J. Design and synthesis of tri-substituted pyrimidine derivatives as bifunctional tumor immunotherapeutic agents targeting both A2A adenosine receptors and histone deacetylases. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
8
|
Huh H, Chen DW, Foldvari M, Slavcev R, Blay J. EGFR-targeted bacteriophage lambda penetrates model stromal and colorectal carcinoma tissues, is taken up into carcinoma cells, and interferes with 3-dimensional tumor formation. Front Immunol 2022; 13:957233. [PMID: 36591314 PMCID: PMC9800840 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.957233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Colorectal cancer and other adult solid cancers pose a significant challenge for successful treatment because the tumor microenvironment both hinders the action of conventional therapeutics and suppresses the immune activities of infiltrating leukocytes. The immune suppression is largely the effect of enhanced local mediators such as purine nucleosides and eicosanoids. Genetic approaches have the promise of interfering with these mechanisms of local immunosuppression to allow both intrinsic and therapeutic immunological anticancer processes. Bacterial phages offer a novel means of enabling access into tissues for therapeutic genetic manipulations. Methods We generated spheroids of fibroblastic and CRC cancer cells to model the 3-dimensional stromal and parenchymal components of colorectal tumours. We used these to examine the access and effects of both wildtype (WT) and epidermal growth factor (EGF)-presenting bacteriophage λ (WT- λ and EGF-λ) as a means of delivery of targeted genetic interventions in solid cancers. We used both confocal microscopy of spheroids exposed to AF488-tagged phages, and the recovery of viable phages as measured by plaque-forming assays to evaluate access; and measures of mitochondrial enzyme activity and cellular ATP to evaluate the outcome on the constituent cells. Results Using flourescence-tagged derivatives of these bacteriophages (AF488-WT-λ and AF488-EGF-λ) we showed that phage entry into these tumour microenvironments was possible and that the EGF ligand enabled efficient and persistent uptake into the cancer cell mass. EGF-λ became localized in the intracellular portion of cancer cells and was subjected to subsequent cellular processing. The targeted λ phage had no independent effect upon mature tumour spheroids, but interfered with the early formation and growth of cancer tissues without the need for addition of a toxic payload, suggesting that it might have beneficial effects by itself in addition to any genetic intervention delivered to the tumour. Interference with spheroid formation persisted over the duration of culture. Discussion We conclude that targeted phage technology is a feasible strategy to facilitate delivery into colorectal cancer tumour tissue (and by extension other solid carcinomas) and provides an appropriate delivery vehicle for a gene therapeutic that can reduce local immunosuppression and/or deliver an additional direct anticancer activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haein Huh
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Ding-Wen Chen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | | | - Roderick Slavcev
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada,*Correspondence: Jonathan Blay, ; Roderick Slavcev,
| | - Jonathan Blay
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada,Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada,*Correspondence: Jonathan Blay, ; Roderick Slavcev,
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abedi Kiasari B, Abbasi A, Ghasemi Darestani N, Adabi N, Moradian A, Yazdani Y, Sadat Hosseini G, Gholami N, Janati S. Combination therapy with nivolumab (anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody): A new era in tumor immunotherapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109365. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
10
|
Plunkett KR, Armitage JD, Inderjeeth AJ, McDonnell AM, Waithman J, Lau PKH. Tissue-resident memory T cells in the era of (Neo) adjuvant melanoma management. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1048758. [PMID: 36466880 PMCID: PMC9709277 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1048758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells have emerged as key players in the immune control of melanoma. These specialized cells are identified by expression of tissue retention markers such as CD69, CD103 and CD49a with downregulation of egress molecules such as Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor-1 (S1PR1) and the lymphoid homing receptor, CD62L. TRM have been shown to be integral in controlling infections such as herpes simplex virus (HSV), lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) and influenza. More recently, robust pre-clinical models have also demonstrated TRM are able to maintain melanoma in a dormant state without progression to macroscopic disease reminiscent of their ability to control viral infections. The discovery of the role these cells play in anti-melanoma immunity has coincided with the advent of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy which has revolutionized the treatment of cancers. ICIs that target programmed death protein-1 (PD-1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) have led to substantial improvements in outcomes for patients with metastatic melanoma and have been rapidly employed to reduce recurrences in the resected stage III setting. While ICIs mediate anti-tumor activity via CD8+ T cells, the specific subsets that facilitate this response is unclear. TRM invariably exhibit high expression of immune checkpoints such as PD-1, CTLA-4 and lymphocyte activating gene-3 (LAG-3) which strongly implicates this CD8+ T cell subset as a crucial mediator of ICI activity. In this review, we present pre-clinical and translational studies that highlight the critical role of TRM in both immune control of primary melanoma and as a key CD8+ T cell subset that mediates anti-tumor activity of ICIs for the treatment of melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kai R. Plunkett
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Jesse D. Armitage
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | | | - Alison M. McDonnell
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Jason Waithman
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Peter K. H. Lau
- Melanoma Discovery Laboratory, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Nedlands, WA, Australia
- Department of Medical Oncology, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Cione E, Caroleo MC. Special Issue “GPCRs: Ligands and beyond 2022”. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15060647. [PMID: 35745566 PMCID: PMC9229880 DOI: 10.3390/ph15060647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The human genome encodes more than 800 different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), uncovering their importance in human physiology [...]
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Cione
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Maria Cristina Caroleo
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Magna Graecia-Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Francucci B, Dal Ben D, Lambertucci C, Spinaci A, Volpini R, Marucci G, Buccioni M. A patent review of adenosine A 2B receptor antagonists (2016-present). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2022; 32:689-712. [PMID: 35387537 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2022.2057222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A2B adenosine receptor (A2BAR) plays a crucial role in pathophysiologic conditions associated with high adenosine release, typical of airway inflammatory pathologies, gastrointestinal disorders, cancer, asthma, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis. In some pathologies, simultaneous inactivation of A2A and A2BARs is desirable to have a synergism of action that leads to a greater efficacy of the pharmacological treatment and less side effects due to the dose of drug administered. In this context, it is strongly required to identify molecules capable of selectively antagonizing A2BAR or A2A/A2BARs. AREAS COVERED The review provides a summary of patents, published from 2016 to present, on chemicals and their clinical use. In this paper, information on the biological activity of representative structures of recently developed A2B or A2A/A2B receptor ligands is reported. EXPERT OPINION Among the four P1 receptors, A2BAR is the most inscrutable and the least studied until a few years ago, but its involvement in various inflammatory pathologies has recently made it a pharmacological target of high interest. Many efforts by the academy and pharmaceutical companies have been made to discover potential A2BAR and A2A/A2BARs drugs. Although several compounds have been synthesized only a few molecules have entered clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Francucci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Diego Dal Ben
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Catia Lambertucci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Andrea Spinaci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Rosaria Volpini
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Gabriella Marucci
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Michela Buccioni
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Zhang J, Luo Z, Duan W, Yang K, Ling L, Yan W, Liu R, Wüthrich K, Jiang H, Xie C, Cheng J. Dual-acting antitumor agents targeting the A 2A adenosine receptor and histone deacetylases: Design and synthesis of 4-(furan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-6-amine derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 236:114326. [PMID: 35390714 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Based on its inhibition by antagonists, the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR) has attracted attention as an anti-tumor drug target; however, in preclinical models and clinical trials, A2AAR antagonists have so far shown only limited efficacy as standalone therapies. The design of dual-acting compounds, targeting the A2AAR and histone deacetylases (HDACs), is used here as an approach to the discovery of novel and more potent antitumor agents. Based on the core structures of the A2AAR antagonists V-2006 and CPI-444, novel 4-(furan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-6-amine derivatives were designed as such dual-acting compounds. The binding affinities for A2AAR of all the new compounds were tested, and their HDAC inhibitory activity was evaluated. Compounds with balanced A2AAR antagonism and HDAC inhibition were tested for their in vitro anti-proliferative activity and pharmacokinetic properties. One of the compounds, 14c (4-(2-(6-Amino-4-(furan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)ethyl)-N-(2-amino-phenyl)benzamide) showed an overall favorable pharmacokinetic profile; in the mouse MC38 xenograft model, it showed potent anti-tumor effects with inhibition rates of 44% (90 mg/kg, po, bid) and 85% (60 mg/kg, ip, bid), respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinfeng Zhang
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Ziwei Luo
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Wenwen Duan
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Kexin Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Lijun Ling
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Wenzhong Yan
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Ruiquan Liu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Kurt Wüthrich
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; Department of Integrated Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Hualiang Jiang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China; Drug Discovery and Design Center, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Chengying Xie
- Drug Discovery and Design Center, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Jianjun Cheng
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Edmunds GL, Wong CCW, Ambler R, Milodowski EJ, Alamir H, Cross SJ, Galea G, Wülfing C, Morgan DJ. Adenosine 2A receptor and TIM3 suppress cytolytic killing of tumor cells via cytoskeletal polarization. Commun Biol 2022; 5:9. [PMID: 35013519 PMCID: PMC8748690 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02972-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumors generate an immune-suppressive environment that prevents effective killing of tumor cells by CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTL). It remains largely unclear upon which cell type and at which stage of the anti-tumor response mediators of suppression act. We have combined an in vivo tumor model with a matching in vitro reconstruction of the tumor microenvironment based on tumor spheroids to identify suppressors of anti-tumor immunity that directly act on interaction between CTL and tumor cells and to determine mechanisms of action. An adenosine 2A receptor antagonist, as enhanced by blockade of TIM3, slowed tumor growth in vivo. Engagement of the adenosine 2A receptor and TIM3 reduced tumor cell killing in spheroids, impaired CTL cytoskeletal polarization ex vivo and in vitro and inhibited CTL infiltration into tumors and spheroids. With this role in CTL killing, blocking A2AR and TIM3 may complement therapies that enhance T cell priming, e.g. anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grace L Edmunds
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Carissa C W Wong
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Rachel Ambler
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | | | - Hanin Alamir
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Stephen J Cross
- Wolfson BioImaging Facility, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Gabriella Galea
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Christoph Wülfing
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK.
| | - David J Morgan
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Yan W, Ling L, Wu Y, Yang K, Liu R, Zhang J, Zhao S, Zhong G, Zhao S, Jiang H, Xie C, Cheng J. Structure-Based Design of Dual-Acting Compounds Targeting Adenosine A 2A Receptor and Histone Deacetylase as Novel Tumor Immunotherapeutic Agents. J Med Chem 2021; 64:16573-16597. [PMID: 34783558 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine is an immunosuppressive factor in the tumor microenvironment mainly through activation of the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR), which is a mechanism hijacked by tumors to escape immune surveillance. Small-molecule A2AR antagonists are being evaluated in clinical trials as immunotherapeutic agents, but their efficacy is limited as standalone therapies. To enhance the antitumor effects of A2AR antagonists, dual-acting compounds incorporating A2AR antagonism and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitory actions were designed and synthesized, based on co-crystal structures of A2AR. Compound 24e (IHCH-3064) exhibited potent binding to A2AR (Ki = 2.2 nM) and selective inhibition of HDAC1 (IC50 = 80.2 nM), with good antiproliferative activity against tumor cell lines in vitro. Intraperitoneal administration of 24e (60 mg/kg, bid) inhibited mouse MC38 tumor growth with a tumor growth inhibition rate of 95.3%. These results showed that dual-acting compounds targeting A2AR and HDAC are potentially immunotherapeutic agents that are worth further exploring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhong Yan
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Lijun Ling
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yiran Wu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Kexin Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Ruiquan Liu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Jinfeng Zhang
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Simeng Zhao
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Guisheng Zhong
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Suwen Zhao
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Hualiang Jiang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.,Drug Discovery and Design Center, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Chengying Xie
- Drug Discovery and Design Center, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jianjun Cheng
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jennings MR, Munn D, Blazeck J. Immunosuppressive metabolites in tumoral immune evasion: redundancies, clinical efforts, and pathways forward. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:e003013. [PMID: 34667078 PMCID: PMC8527165 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2021-003013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumors accumulate metabolites that deactivate infiltrating immune cells and polarize them toward anti-inflammatory phenotypes. We provide a comprehensive review of the complex networks orchestrated by several of the most potent immunosuppressive metabolites, highlighting the impact of adenosine, kynurenines, prostaglandin E2, and norepinephrine and epinephrine, while discussing completed and ongoing clinical efforts to curtail their impact. Retrospective analyses of clinical data have elucidated that their activity is negatively associated with prognosis in diverse cancer indications, though there is a current paucity of approved therapies that disrupt their synthesis or downstream signaling axes. We hypothesize that prior lukewarm results may be attributed to redundancies in each metabolites' synthesis or signaling pathway and highlight routes for how therapeutic development and patient stratification might proceed in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rain Jennings
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - David Munn
- Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA
| | - John Blazeck
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Lu Y, Liu H, Yang D, Zhong L, Xin Y, Zhao S, Wang MW, Zhou Q, Shui W. Affinity Mass Spectrometry-Based Fragment Screening Identified a New Negative Allosteric Modulator of the Adenosine A 2A Receptor Targeting the Sodium Ion Pocket. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:991-1002. [PMID: 34048655 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Allosteric ligands provide new opportunities to modulate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) function and present therapeutic benefits over orthosteric molecules. Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) can inhibit the activation of a receptor and downstream signal transduction. Screening NAMs for a GPCR target is particularly challenging because of the difficulty in distinguishing NAMs from antagonists bound to the orthosteric site as they both show inhibitory effects in receptor signaling assays. Here we report an affinity mass spectrometry (MS)-based approach tailored to screening potential NAMs of a GPCR target especially from fragment libraries. Compared to regular surface plasmon resonance or NMR-based methods for fragment screening, our approach features a reduction of the protein and compound consumption by 2-4 orders of magnitude and an increase in the data acquisition speed by 2-3 orders of magnitude. Our affinity MS-based fragment screening led to the identification of a new NAM of the adenosine A2A receptor (A2AAR) bearing an unprecedented azetidine moiety predicted to occupy the allosteric sodium binding site. Molecular dynamics simulations, ligand structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies, and in-solution NMR analyses further revealed the unique binding mode and antagonistic property of this compound that differs considerably from HMA (5-(N,N-hexamethylene)amiloride), a well-characterized NAM of A2AAR. Taken together, our work would facilitate fragment-based screening of allosteric modulators, as well as guide the design of novel NAMs acting at the sodium ion pocket of class A GPCRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Lu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongyue Liu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dehua Yang
- The National Center for Drug Screening and the CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Li Zhong
- The National Center for Drug Screening and the CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Ye Xin
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Suwen Zhao
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Ming-Wei Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- The National Center for Drug Screening and the CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qingtong Zhou
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wenqing Shui
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Two Complementarity Immunotherapeutics in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Patients-Mechanism of Action and Future Concepts. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112836. [PMID: 34200219 PMCID: PMC8201041 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Here, we focused on the most important mechanisms of action of combined immunotherapy with modern anticancer approaches in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. This knowledge is extremely important for lung cancer clinicians. First, it facilitates proper involvement of the patient in the treatment and monitoring its effectiveness. More importantly, the knowledge of the immunotherapy mechanisms will certainly allow quick recognition of the side effects of such a therapy, which are totally different of those observed after chemotherapy. Side effects of combination therapies can occur at any stage of treatment, and even after completion thereof. This review article could particularly explain the mechanism of action of combined immunotherapy, which have different targets in patients. Abstract Due to the limited effectiveness of immunotherapy used as first-line monotherapy in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the concepts of combining classical immunotherapy based on immune checkpoint antibodies with other treatment methods have been developed. Pembrolizumab and atezolizumab were registered in combination with chemotherapy for the treatment of metastatic NSCLC, while durvalumab found its application in consolidation therapy after successful chemoradiotherapy in patients with locally advanced NSCLC. Exceptionally attractive, due to their relatively low toxicity and high effectiveness, are treatment approaches in which a combination of two different immunotherapy methods is applied. This method is based on observations from clinical trials in which nivolumab and ipilimumab were used as first-line therapy for advanced NSCLC. It turned out that the dual blockade of immune checkpoints activated T lymphocytes in different compartments of the immune response, at the same time affecting the downregulation of immune suppressor cells (regulatory T cells). These experiments not only resulted in the registration of combination therapy with nivolumab and ipilimumab, but also initiated other clinical trials using immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in combination with other ICIs or activators of costimulatory molecules found on immune cells. There are also studies in which ICIs are associated with molecules that modify the tumour environment. This paper describes the mechanism of the synergistic effect of a combination of different immunotherapy methods in NSCLC patients.
Collapse
|
19
|
Renk DR, Skraban M, Bier D, Schulze A, Wabbals E, Wedekind F, Neumaier F, Neumaier B, Holschbach M. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of Tozadenant analogues as adenosine A 2A receptor ligands. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 214:113214. [PMID: 33548636 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
With the aim to obtain potent adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) ligands, a series of eighteen derivatives of 4-hydroxy-N-(4-methoxy-7-morpholin-4-yl-1,3-benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidine-1-carboxamide (SYN-115, Tozadenant) were designed and synthesized. The target compounds were obtained by a chemical building block principle that involved reaction of the appropriate aminobenzothiazole phenyl carbamates with either commercially available or readily synthesized functionalized piperidines. Their affinity and subtype selectivity with regard to human adenosine A1-and A2A receptors were determined using radioligand binding assays. Ki values for human A2AR ranged from 2.4 to 38 nM, with more than 120-fold selectivity over A1 receptors for all evaluated compounds except 13k which had a Ki of 361 nM and 18-fold selectivity. The most potent fluorine-containing derivatives 13e, 13g and 13l exhibited Ki values of 4.9 nM, 3.6 nM and 2.8 nM for the human A2AR. Interestingly, the corresponding values for rat A2AR were found to be four to five times higher. Their binding to A2AR was further confirmed by radiolabeling with 18F and in vitro autoradiography in rat brain slices, which showed almost exclusive striatal binding and complete displacement by the A2AR antagonist ZM 241385. We conclude that these compounds represent potential candidates for the visualization of the A2A receptor and open pathways to novel therapeutic treatments of neurodegenerative disorders or cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana R Renk
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, Kerpener Straße 62, 50937, Köln, Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Marcel Skraban
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Dirk Bier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Annette Schulze
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Erika Wabbals
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Franziska Wedekind
- Molecular Organization of the Brain (INM-2), Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, 52428, Jülich, Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Felix Neumaier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, Kerpener Straße 62, 50937, Köln, Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Bernd Neumaier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, Kerpener Straße 62, 50937, Köln, Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany
| | - Marcus Holschbach
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Nuclear Chemistry (INM-5), Germany; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|