Cathepsin B-Overexpressed Tumor Cell Activatable Albumin-Binding Doxorubicin Prodrug for Cancer-Targeted Therapy

Advances in chemically modified HSA as a multifunctional carrier for transforming cancer therapy regimens

Human serum albumin (HSA) is a versatile, biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, and non-immunogenic protein nanocarrier, making it an ideal platform for developing advanced drug delivery systems. These properties have garnered significant attention in utilizing HSA nanoparticles for the safe and efficient delivery of chemotherapeutic agents. HSA-based nanoparticles can be surface-modified with various ligands to enable tumor-targeted drug delivery, enhancing therapeutic specificity and efficacy. Furthermore, the multifunctionality of HSA nanoparticles offers promising strategies to overcome challenges in cancer therapy, including poor bioavailability, off-target toxicity, and drug resistance. This review highlights the structural features of HSA, explores its diverse modifications to improve drug-binding affinity and targeting ability, and discusses its potential as a multifunctional carrier in oncology. By summarizing the latest advances in HSA modification techniques and applications, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the future of protein-based drug delivery systems in tumor therapy.

Advances in tumor stroma-based targeted delivery

The tumor stroma plays a crucial role in tumor progression, and the interactions between the extracellular matrix, tumor cells, and stromal cells collectively influence tumor progression and the efficacy of therapeutic agents. Currently, utilizing components of the tumor stroma for drug delivery is a noteworthy strategy. A number of targeted drug delivery systems designed based on tumor stromal components are entering clinical trials. Therefore, this paper provides a thorough examination of the function of tumor stroma in the advancement of targeted drug delivery systems. One approach is to use tumor stromal components for targeted drug delivery, which includes certain stromal components possessing inherent targeting capabilities like HA, laminin, along with targeting stromal cells homologously. Another method entails directly focusing on tumor stromal components to reshape the tumor stroma and facilitate drug delivery. These drug delivery systems exhibit great potential in more effective cancer therapy strategies, such as precise targeting, enhanced penetration, improved safety profile, and biocompatibility. Ultimately, the deployment of these drug delivery systems can deepen our comprehension of tumor stroma and the advanced development of corresponding drug delivery systems.

Multi-functional nanomedicines for combinational cancer immunotherapy that transform cold tumors to hot tumors

INTRODUCTION

Currently, cancer immunotherapy is widely used as a groundbreaking method that can completely cure advanced cancers. However, this new immunotherapy has the challenge of low patient response, which is often due to many patients' tumors having an immunosuppressive environment, known as cold tumors.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to introduce various nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy that can transform cold tumor into hot tumors. Initially, we discuss new technologies for combinational immunotherapy based on multifunctional nanomedicines that can deliver combinational immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers, immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs) and immune modulators (IMs) to targeted tumor tissues at the same time. Ultimately, we highlight how multifunctional nanomedicines for combinational cancer immunotherapy can be used to transform cold tumor into hot tumors against advanced cancers.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy for delivering multiple ICD inducers, ICBs, and IMs at the same time is recognized as a new potential technology that can activate tumor immunity and simultaneously increase the therapeutic efficacy of immune cells that can transform effectively the cold tumors into hot tumors. Finally, nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy can solve the serious problems of low therapeutic efficacy that occurs when treating single drug or simple combinational drugs in cancer immunotherapy.

Theranostic Fluorescent Probes

The ability to gain spatiotemporal information, and in some cases achieve spatiotemporal control, in the context of drug delivery makes theranostic fluorescent probes an attractive and intensely investigated research topic. This interest is reflected in the steep rise in publications on the topic that have appeared over the past decade. Theranostic fluorescent probes, in their various incarnations, generally comprise a fluorophore linked to a masked drug, in which the drug is released as the result of certain stimuli, with both intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli being reported. This release is then signaled by the emergence of a fluorescent signal. Importantly, the use of appropriate fluorophores has enabled not only this emerging fluorescence as a spatiotemporal marker for drug delivery but also has provided modalities useful in photodynamic, photothermal, and sonodynamic therapeutic applications. In this review we highlight recent work on theranostic fluorescent probes with a particular focus on probes that are activated in tumor microenvironments. We also summarize efforts to develop probes for other applications, such as neurodegenerative diseases and antibacterials. This review celebrates the diversity of designs reported to date, from discrete small-molecule systems to nanomaterials. Our aim is to provide insights into the potential clinical impact of this still-emerging research direction.

Development of a Peptide-Based Nano-Sized Cathepsin B Inhibitor for Anticancer Therapy

Numerous cathepsin B inhibitors have been developed and are under investigation as potential cancer treatments. They have been evaluated for their ability to inhibit cathepsin B activity and reduce tumor growth. However, they have shown critical limitations, including low anticancer efficacy and high toxicity, due to their low selectivity and delivery problems. In this study, we developed a novel peptide and drug conjugate (PDC)-based cathepsin B inhibitor using cathepsin-B-specific peptide (RR) and bile acid (BA). Interestingly, this RR and BA conjugate (RR–BA) was able to self-assemble in an aqueous solution, and as a result, it formed stable nanoparticles. The nano-sized RR–BA conjugate showed significant cathepsin B inhibitory effects and anticancer effects against mouse colorectal cancer (CT26) cells. Its therapeutic effect and low toxicity were also confirmed in CT26 tumor-bearing mice after intravenous injection. Therefore, based on these results, the RR–BA conjugate could be developed as an effective anticancer drug candidate for inhibiting cathepsin B in anticancer therapy.

A cathepsin B/GSH dual-responsive fluorinated peptide for effective siRNA delivery to cancer cells

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) can be exploited to silence specific genes associated with cancer development, and successful siRNA therapy is highly dependent on the efficiency of the siRNA delivery vector. Herein, a well-designed novel redox- and enzyme-responsive fluorinated polyarginine (PFC-PR) was developed to be used as an anti-cancer siRNA carrier. The multiple guanidine groups could provide positive charges and bind with siRNA efficiently, and further fluorination modification enhanced the interaction with siRNA, resulting in a more stable PFC-PR/siRNA nanocomplex, improving serum tolerance, and promoting cellular uptake and endosome escape. Meanwhile, the PFC-PR was responsive to overexpressed cathepsin B and high levels of glutathione in cancer cells, conferring its ability to enhance siRNA release within cancer cells and making it cancer-targeting. Consequently, PFC-PR showed good biocompatibility and high gene silencing efficiency, which could inhibit cancer cell growth when delivered the siRNA targeting vascular endothelial growth factor, suggesting that it can be potentially used for anti-cancer gene therapy applications.

tRNA-derived fragments (tRFs) in cancer

tRNA fragments (tRNA derived fragments or tRFs) are small single stranded RNA molecules derived from pre-tRNAs and mature tRNAs. tRFs have been known for a number of years, but previously they were believed to be not important products of tRNA degradation. tRFs can be unique, like tRF-1 s, or redundant, like tRF-3 s and tRF-5 s. Scientific interest in tRFs has drastically increased in the last 5 years. Many studies have found that tRFs are differentially expressed in many normal cellular processes as well as in transformed cancer cells. Dysregulation of tRFs expression have been reported in multiple major types of cancer including solid cancers and lymphoid malignancies. However the exact molecular role of these molecules is not entirely clear. A number of studies proposed that tRFs can work as microRNAs by targeting gene expression. Here we discuss recent studies showing differential expression of tRFs in many cancers as well as what is currently known about tRFs biological functions in cancer cells.

Development of stimuli responsive polymeric nanomedicines modulating tumor microenvironment for improved cancer therapy

The complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) severely hinders the therapeutic effects of various cancer treatment modalities. The TME differs from normal tissues owing to the presence of hypoxia, low pH, and immune-suppressive characteristics. Modulation of the TME to reverse tumor growth equilibrium is considered an effective way to treat tumors. Recently, polymeric nanomedicines have been widely used in cancer therapy, because their synthesis can be controlled and they are highly modifiable, and have demonstrated great potential to remodel the TME. In this review, we outline the application of various stimuli responsive polymeric nanomedicines to modulate the TME, aiming to provide insights for the design of the next generation of polymeric nanomedicines and promote the development of polymeric nanomedicines for cancer therapy.

Beyond basic research: the contribution of cathepsin B to cancer development, diagnosis and therapy

INTRODUCTION

In view of other candidate proteins from the cathepsin family of proteases holding great potential in being targeted during cancer therapy, the importance of Cathepsin B (CtsB) stands out as being truly exceptional. Based on its contribution to oncogenesis, its intimate connection with regulating apoptosis and modulating extracellular and intracellular functions through its secretion or compartmentalized subcellular localization, collectively highlight its complex molecular involvement with a myriad of normal and pathological regulatory processes. Despite its complex functional nature, CtsB is emerging as one of the few cathepsin proteases that has been extensively researched to yield tangible outcomes for cancer therapy.

AREAS COVERED

In this article, we review the scientific literature that has justified or shaped the importance of CtsB expression in cancer progression, from the perspective of highlighting a paradigm that is rapidly changing from basic research toward a broader clinical and translational context.

EXPERT OPINION

In doing so, we detail its maturation as a diagnostic marker through describing the development of CtsB-specific Activity-Based Probes, the rapid evolution of these toward a new generation of Prodrugs, and the evaluation of these in model systems for their therapeutic potential as anti-cancer agents in the clinic.

Current trends in the use of human serum albumin for drug delivery in cancer

INTRODUCTION

Human serum albumin is the most abundant transport protein in plasma, which has recently been extensively utilized to form nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer. The primary reason for selecting albumin protein as drug delivery cargo is its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity. Moreover, the albumin structure containing three homologous domains constituted of a single polypeptide (585 amino acid) incorporates various hydrophobic drugs by non-covalent interactions. Albumin shows active tumor targeting via their interaction with gp60 and SPARC proteins abundant in the tumor-associated endothelial cells and the tumor microenvironment.

AREAS COVERED

The review discusses the importance of albumin as a drug-carrier system, general procedures to prepare albumin NPs, and the current trends in using albumin-based nanomedicines to deliver various chemotherapeutic agents. The various applications of albumin in the nanomedicines, such as NPs surface modifier and fabrication of hybrid/active-tumor targeted NPs, are delineated based on current trends.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicines have the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment. However, clinical translation is limited majorly due to the lack of suitable nanomaterials offering systemic stability, optimum drug encapsulation, tumor-targeted delivery, sustained drug release, and biocompatibility. The potential of albumin could be explored in nanomedicines fabrication for superior treatment outcomes in cancer.

Tumor-Specific Monomethyl Auristatin E (MMAE) Prodrug Nanoparticles for Safe and Effective Chemotherapy

A prodrug is bioreversible medication that is specifically converted to the active drugs by enzymes overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment, which can considerably reduce the chemotherapy-induced side effects. However, prodrug strategies usually have low antitumor efficacy compared to free drugs by delayed drug release. This is because they need time to be activated by enzymatic cleavage and they also cannot be fully recovered to the active drugs. Therefore, highly potent anticancer drug should be considered to expect a sufficient antitumor efficacy. Herein, we propose tumor-specific monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE) prodrug nanoparticles for safe and effective chemotherapy. The cathepsin B-specific cleavable FRRG peptide and MMAE are chemically conjugated via one-step simple synthetic chemistry. The resulting FRRG-MMAE molecules form stable nanoparticles without any additional carrier materials by hydrophobic interaction-derived aggregations. The FRRG-MMAE nanoparticles efficiently accumulate within the tumor tissues owing to the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and inhibit the tubulin polymerization by releasing free MMAE in the cathepsin B-overexpressed tumor cells. In contrast, FRRG-MMAE nanoparticles maintain a non-toxic inactive state in the normal tissues owing to innately low cathepsin B expression, thereby reducing MMAE-related severe toxicity. Collectively, this study provides a promising approach for safe and effective chemotherapy via MMAE-based prodrug nanoparticles, which may open new avenues for advanced drug design for translational nanomedicine.

Preclinical development of carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles for enhanced antitumor therapeutic potential with less toxicity

Background

Nanomedicine has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer treatment. The most representative nanomedicine used in clinic is PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin DOXIL^®, which is first FDA-approved nanomedicine. However, several shortcomings, such as low drug loading capacity, low tumor targeting, difficulty in mass production and potential toxicity of carrier materials, have hindered the successful clinical translation of nanomedicines. In this study, we report a preclinical development process of the carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles designed as an alternative formulation to overcome limitations of conventional nanomedicines in the terms of technical- and industrial-aspects.

Results

The carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles (F68-FDOX) are prepared by self-assembly of cathepsin B-specific cleavable peptide (FRRG) and doxorubicin (DOX) conjugates without any additional carrier materials, and further stabilized with Pluronic F68, resulting in high drug loading (> 50%). The precise and concise structure allow mass production with easily controllable quality control (QC), and its lyophilized powder form has a great long-term storage stability at different temperatures (− 4, 37 and 60 °C). With high cathepsin B-specificity, F68-FDOX induce a potent cytotoxicity preferentially in cancer cells, whereas their cytotoxicity is greatly minimized in normal cells with innately low cathepsin B expression. In tumor models, F68-FDOX efficiently accumulates within tumor tissues owing to enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and subsequently release toxic DOX molecules by cathepsin B-specific cleavage mechanism, showing a broad therapeutic spectrum with significant antitumor activity in three types of colon, breast and pancreatic cancers. Finally, the safety of F68-FDOX treatment is investigated after single-/multi-dosage into mice, showing greatly minimized DOX-related toxicity, compared to free DOX in normal mice.

Conclusions

Collectively, these results provide potential preclinical development process of an alternative approach, new formulation of carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles, for clinical translation of nanomedicines.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01644-x.

Tumor-activated carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles for targeted cancer Immunotherapy: Preclinical evidence for safe and effective drug delivery

As immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers initiating antitumor immune responses, certain chemotherapeutic drugs have shown considerable potential to reverse the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM) into immune-responsive tumors. The application of these drugs in nanomedicine provides a more enhanced therapeutic index by improving unfavorable pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles and inefficient tumor targeting. However, the clinical translation of conventional nanoparticles is restricted by fundamental problems, such as risks of immunogenicity and potential toxicity by carrier materials, premature drug leakage in off-target sites during circulation, low drug loading contents, and complex structure and synthetic processes that hinder quality control (QC) and scale-up industrial production. To address these limitations, tumor-activated carrier-free prodrug nanoparticles (PDNPs), constructed only by the self-assembly of prodrugs without any additional carrier materials, have been widely investigated with distinct advantages for safe and more effective drug delivery. In addition, combination immunotherapy based on PDNPs with other diverse modalities has efficiently reversed the ITM to immune-responsive tumors, potentiating the response to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. In this review, the trends and advances in PDNPs are outlined, and each self-assembly mechanism is discussed. In addition, various combination immunotherapies based on PDNPs are reviewed. Finally, a physical tumor microenvironment remodeling strategy to maximize the potential of PDNPs, and key considerations for clinical translation are highlighted.

Emerging Albumin-Binding Anticancer Drugs for Tumor-Targeted Drug Delivery: Current Understandings and Clinical Translation

Albumin has shown remarkable promise as a natural drug carrier by improving pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of anticancer drugs for tumor-targeted delivery. The exogenous or endogenous albumin enhances the circulatory half-lives of anticancer drugs and passively target the tumors by the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Thus, the albumin-based drug delivery leads to a potent antitumor efficacy in various preclinical models, and several candidates have been evaluated clinically. The most successful example is Abraxane, an exogenous human serum albumin (HSA)-bound paclitaxel formulation approved by the FDA and used to treat locally advanced or metastatic tumors. However, additional clinical translation of exogenous albumin formulations has not been approved to date because of their unexpectedly low delivery efficiency, which can increase the risk of systemic toxicity. To overcome these limitations, several prodrugs binding endogenous albumin covalently have been investigated owing to distinct advantages for a safe and more effective drug delivery. In this review, we give account of the different albumin-based drug delivery systems, from laboratory investigations to clinical applications, and their potential challenges, and the outlook for clinical translation is discussed. In addition, recent advances and progress of albumin-binding drugs to move more closely to the clinical settings are outlined.

Enzyme-activated Prodrugs and Their Release Mechanisms for Treatment of Cancer

Enzyme-activated prodrugs have received a lot of attention in recent years. These prodrugs have low toxicity to cells before they are activated, and when they interact with specific enzymes, they...