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Sanchez-Vital R, Casals L, Heer-Salva B, Vidal R, Gomez C, Garcia-Villegas E. Energy Performance of LR-FHSS: Analysis and Evaluation. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:5770. [PMID: 39275681 PMCID: PMC11397901 DOI: 10.3390/s24175770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/16/2024]
Abstract
Long-range frequency hopping spread spectrum (LR-FHSS) is a pivotal advancement in the LoRaWAN protocol that is designed to enhance the network's capacity and robustness, particularly in densely populated environments. Although energy consumption is paramount in LoRaWAN-based end devices, this is the first study in the literature, to our knowledge, that models the impact of this novel mechanism on energy consumption. In this article, we provide a comprehensive energy consumption analytical model of LR-FHSS, focusing on three critical metrics: average current consumption, battery lifetime, and energy efficiency of data transmission. The model is based on measurements performed on real hardware in a fully operational LR-FHSS network. While in our evaluation, LR-FHSS can show worse consumption figures than LoRa, we find that with optimal configuration, the battery lifetime of LR-FHSS end devices can reach 2.5 years for a 50 min notification period. For the most energy-efficient payload size, this lifespan can be extended to a theoretical maximum of up to 16 years with a one-day notification interval using a cell-coin battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Sanchez-Vital
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Lluís Casals
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Bartomeu Heer-Salva
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Rafael Vidal
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Carles Gomez
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Eduard Garcia-Villegas
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
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2
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Alkhayyal M, Mostafa A. Recent Developments in AI and ML for IoT: A Systematic Literature Review on LoRaWAN Energy Efficiency and Performance Optimization. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:4482. [PMID: 39065882 PMCID: PMC11281262 DOI: 10.3390/s24144482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
The field of the Internet of Things (IoT) is dominating various areas of technology. As the number of devices has increased, there is a need for efficient communication with low resource consumption and energy efficiency. Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) have emerged as a transformative technology for the IoT as they provide long-range communication capabilities with low power consumption. Among the various LPWAN technologies, Long Range Wide Area Networks (LoRaWAN) are widely adopted due to their open standard architecture, which supports secure, bi-directional communication and is particularly effective in outdoor and complex urban environments. This technology is helpful in enabling a variety of IoT applications that require wide coverage and long battery life, such as smart cities, industrial IoT, and environmental monitoring. The integration of Machine Leaning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) into LoRaWAN operations has further enhanced its capability and particularly optimized resource allocation and energy efficiency. This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive examination of the integration of ML and AI technologies in the optimization of LPWANs, with a specific focus on LoRaWAN. This review follows the PRISMA model and systematically synthesizes current research to highlight how ML and AI enhance operational efficiency, particularly in terms of energy consumption, resource management, and network stability. The SLR aims to review the key methods and techniques that are used in state-of-the-art LoRaWAN to enhance the overall network performance. We identified 25 relevant primary studies. The study provides an analysis of key findings based on research questions on how various LoRaWAN parameters are optimized through advanced ML, DL, and RL techniques to achieve optimized performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maram Alkhayyal
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
| | - Almetwally Mostafa
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
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3
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Iqbal U, Barthelemy J, Michal G. An End-to-End Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) Solution for Protecting Pipeline Easements against External Interference-An Australian Use-Case. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2799. [PMID: 38732905 PMCID: PMC11086124 DOI: 10.3390/s24092799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
High-pressure pipelines are critical for transporting hazardous materials over long distances, but they face threats from third-party interference activities. Preventive measures are implemented, but interference accidents can still occur, making the need for high-quality detection strategies vital. This paper proposes an end-to-end Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) solution to detect potential interference threats in real time. The solution involves developing a smart visual sensor capable of processing images using state-of-the-art computer vision algorithms and transmitting alerts to pipeline operators in real time. The system's core is based on the object-detection model (e.g., You Only Look Once version 4 (YOLOv4) and DETR with Improved deNoising anchOr boxes (DINO)), trained on a custom Pipeline Visual Threat Assessment (Pipe-VisTA) dataset. Among the trained models, DINO was able to achieve the best Mean Average Precision (mAP) of 71.2% for the unseen test dataset. However, for the deployment on a limited computational-ability edge computer (i.e., the NVIDIA Jetson Nano), the simpler and TensorRT-optimized YOLOv4 model was used, which achieved a mAP of 61.8% for the test dataset. The developed AIoT device captures the image using a camera, processes on the edge using the trained YOLOv4 model to detect the potential threat, transmits the threat alert to a Fleet Portal via LoRaWAN, and hosts the alert on a dashboard via a satellite network. The device has been fully tested in the field to ensure its functionality prior to deployment for the SEA Gas use-case. The AIoT smart solution has been deployed across the 10km stretch of the SEA Gas pipeline across the Murray Bridge section. In total, 48 AIoT devices and three Fleet Portals are installed to ensure the line-of-sight communication between the devices and portals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umair Iqbal
- SMART Infrastructure Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia
| | - Johan Barthelemy
- SMART Infrastructure Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia
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4
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Gaffurini M, Flammini A, Ferrari P, Fernandes Carvalho D, Godoy EP, Sisinni E. End-to-End Emulation of LoRaWAN Architecture and Infrastructure in Complex Smart City Scenarios Exploiting Containers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2024. [PMID: 38610235 PMCID: PMC11014076 DOI: 10.3390/s24072024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
In a LoRaWAN network, the backend is generally distributed as Software as a Service (SaaS) based on container technology, and recently, a containerized version of the LoRaWAN node stack is also available. Exploiting the disaggregation of LoRaWAN components, this paper focuses on the emulation of complex end-to-end architecture and infrastructures for smart city scenarios, leveraging on lightweight virtualization technology. The fundamental metrics to gain insights and evaluate the scaling complexity of the emulated scenario are defined. Then, the methodology is applied to use cases taken from a real LoRaWAN application in a smart city with hundreds of nodes. As a result, the proposed approach based on containers allows for the following: (i) deployments of functionalities on diverse distributed hosts; (ii) the use of the very same SW running on real nodes; (iii) the simple configuration and management of the emulation process; (iv) affordable costs. Both premise and cloud servers are considered as emulation platforms to evaluate the resource request and emulation cost of the proposed approach. For instance, emulating one hour of an entire LoRaWAN network with hundreds of nodes requires very affordable hardware that, if realized with a cloud-based computing platform, may cost less than USD 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Gaffurini
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (A.F.); (E.S.)
| | - Alessandra Flammini
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (A.F.); (E.S.)
| | - Paolo Ferrari
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (A.F.); (E.S.)
| | - Dhiego Fernandes Carvalho
- Department of Control and Automation Engineering, Sao Paulo State University, São Paulo 01049-010, Brazil; (D.F.C.); (E.P.G.)
| | - Eduardo Paciencia Godoy
- Department of Control and Automation Engineering, Sao Paulo State University, São Paulo 01049-010, Brazil; (D.F.C.); (E.P.G.)
| | - Emiliano Sisinni
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (A.F.); (E.S.)
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Stuart T, Farley M, Amato J, Thien R, Hanna J, Bhatia A, Clausen DM, Gutruf P. Biosymbiotic platform for chronic long-range monitoring of biosignals in limited resource settings. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2307952120. [PMID: 38048458 PMCID: PMC10723125 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2307952120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Remote patient monitoring is a critical component of digital medicine, and the COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted its importance. Wearable sensors aimed at noninvasive extraction and transmission of high-fidelity physiological data provide an avenue toward at-home diagnostics and therapeutics; however, the infrastructure requirements for such devices limit their use to areas with well-established connectivity. This accentuates the socioeconomic and geopolitical gap in digital health technology and points toward a need to provide access in areas that have limited resources. Low-power wide area network (LPWAN) protocols, such as LoRa, may provide an avenue toward connectivity in these settings; however, there has been limited work on realizing wearable devices with this functionality because of power and electromagnetic constraints. In this work, we introduce wearables with electromagnetic, electronic, and mechanical features provided by a biosymbiotic platform to realize high-fidelity biosignals transmission of 15 miles without the need for satellite infrastructure. The platform implements wireless power transfer for interaction-free recharging, enabling long-term and uninterrupted use over weeks without the need for the user to interact with the devices. This work presents demonstration of a continuously wearable device with this long-range capability that has the potential to serve resource-constrained and remote areas, providing equitable access to digital health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tucker Stuart
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Max Farley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Julia Amato
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Ryan Thien
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Jessica Hanna
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | - Aman Bhatia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
| | | | - Philipp Gutruf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
- Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
- Neuroscience Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ85721
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6
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Soy H. Coverage Analysis of LoRa and NB-IoT Technologies on LPWAN-Based Agricultural Vehicle Tracking Application. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:8859. [PMID: 37960558 PMCID: PMC10648585 DOI: 10.3390/s23218859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
This study focuses on the recently emerged Internet of Vehicles (IoV) concept to provide an integrated agricultural vehicle/machinery tracking system through two leading low power wide area network (LPWAN) technologies, namely LoRa and NB-IoT. The main aim is to investigate the theoretical coverage limits by considering the urban, suburban, and rural environments. Two vehicle tracking units (VTUs) have been designed for LoRa and NB-IoT connectivity technologies that can be used as reference hardware in coverage analysis. On this basis, the closed-form explicit analytical expressions of the maximum transmission range have been derived using the Hata path loss model. Besides, the computer simulation results have been validated via the maps from XIRIO online radio planning tool. In light of the obtained findings, several evaluations have been made to enhance the LPWAN-based agricultural vehicle tracking feasibility in smart farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakkı Soy
- Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Necmettin Erbakan University, 42090 Konya, Türkiye
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7
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Bonilla V, Campoverde B, Yoo SG. A Systematic Literature Review of LoRaWAN: Sensors and Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:8440. [PMID: 37896533 PMCID: PMC10611380 DOI: 10.3390/s23208440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
LoRaWAN is a communication protocol designed especially for Internet of Things (IoT) applications that offers benefits such as long-distance connection and low power consumption. Due to the characteristics of LoRaWAN, this technology has gained great popularity in various IoT applications, such as environmental monitoring, smart agriculture, and applications in the areas of health and mobility, among others. Given this situation, the objective of this work is to provide an in-depth overview of LoRaWAN technology in terms of its applications, as well as the devices that have been used for the development of such applications. Additionally, this work reviews what other areas of LoRaWAN have been covered in different scientific articles, i.e., performance improvement and security. Among the main results of this study though analyzing previous works, we can say that most of them have been developed in the area of environmental monitoring and have used low-cost devices such as Arduinos, Raspberry Pis, and relatively low-cost commercial products such as those of the Semtech and STMicroelectronics brands. The analysis of the present work shows objectively and formally that LoRaWAN technology can be applied in various applications and that there are many studies that try to optimize its performance and security. This paper seeks to identify and describe the most relevant applications of LoRaWAN in different sectors, such as agriculture, health, and environmental monitoring, among others, and the challenges and solutions found in each area. This literature review will provide a valuable reference to understand the potential and opportunities offered by LoRaWAN technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicky Bonilla
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Brandon Campoverde
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Sang Guun Yoo
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
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8
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Povalac A, Kral J, Arthaber H, Kolar O, Novak M. Exploring LoRaWAN Traffic: In-Depth Analysis of IoT Network Communications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7333. [PMID: 37687789 PMCID: PMC10490483 DOI: 10.3390/s23177333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, Long-Range Wire-Area Network (LoRaWAN) has emerged as one of the most widely adopted Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) standards. Significant efforts have been devoted to optimizing the operation of this network. However, research in this domain heavily relies on simulations and demands high-quality real-world traffic data. To address this need, we monitored and analyzed LoRaWAN traffic in four European cities, making the obtained data and post-processing scripts publicly available. For monitoring purposes, we developed an open-source sniffer capable of capturing all LoRaWAN communication within the EU868 band. Our analysis discovered significant issues in current LoRaWAN deployments, including violations of fundamental security principles, such as the use of default and exposed encryption keys, potential breaches of spectrum regulations including duty cycle violations, SyncWord issues, and misaligned Class-B beacons. This misalignment can render Class-B unusable, as the beacons cannot be validated. Furthermore, we enhanced Wireshark's LoRaWAN protocol dissector to accurately decode recorded traffic. Additionally, we proposed the passive reception of Class-B beacons as an alternative timebase source for devices operating within LoRaWAN coverage under the assumption that the issue of misaligned beacons can be addressed or mitigated in the future. The identified issues and the published dataset can serve as valuable resources for researchers simulating real-world traffic and for the LoRaWAN Alliance to enhance the standard to facilitate more reliable Class-B communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ales Povalac
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (O.K.); (M.N.)
| | - Jan Kral
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (O.K.); (M.N.)
| | - Holger Arthaber
- Institute of Electrodynamics, Microwave and Circuit Engineering, TU Wien, Gusshausstrasse 25/354, 1040 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Ondrej Kolar
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (O.K.); (M.N.)
| | - Marek Novak
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.K.); (O.K.); (M.N.)
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9
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Ragnoli M, Scarsella M, Leoni A, Ferri G, Stornelli V. Wireless Sensor Network-Based Rockfall and Landslide Monitoring Systems: A Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7278. [PMID: 37631814 PMCID: PMC10459084 DOI: 10.3390/s23167278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Rockfalls and landslide events are caused by different factors among which are included geomorphological and climatic factors and also human interaction. Therefore, the economic and social impacts can be significant and the remote monitoring of such hazards has become an essential topic in various applications. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are well suited for the deployment of monitoring systems, benefiting from the different technologies and topologies that are available and evolving nowadays. This review paper aims to summarize and overview the up-to-date state of the art of rockfall and landslide monitoring systems based on WSNs. The implementation and methods were analyzed for each solution, along with the system architecture and relevant hardware aspects. All the retrieved data were used to analyze the current trends and future possibilities in the field of WSN geohazard monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Ragnoli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (M.S.); (A.L.); (G.F.); (V.S.)
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10
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Farhad A, Pyun JY. LoRaWAN Meets ML: A Survey on Enhancing Performance with Machine Learning. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:6851. [PMID: 37571633 PMCID: PMC10422334 DOI: 10.3390/s23156851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things is rapidly growing with the demand for low-power, long-range wireless communication technologies. Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one such technology that has gained significant attention in recent years due to its ability to provide long-range communication with low power consumption. One of the main issues in LoRaWAN is the efficient utilization of radio resources (e.g., spreading factor and transmission power) by the end devices. To solve the resource allocation issue, machine learning (ML) methods have been used to improve the LoRaWAN network performance. The primary aim of this survey paper is to study and examine the issue of resource management in LoRaWAN that has been resolved through state-of-the-art ML methods. Further, this survey presents the publicly available LoRaWAN frameworks that could be utilized for dataset collection, discusses the required features for efficient resource management with suggested ML methods, and highlights the existing publicly available datasets. The survey also explores and evaluates the Network Simulator-3-based ML frameworks that can be leveraged for efficient resource management. Finally, future recommendations regarding the applicability of the ML applications for resource management in LoRaWAN are illustrated, providing a comprehensive guide for researchers and practitioners interested in applying ML to improve the performance of the LoRaWAN network.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jae-Young Pyun
- Wireless and Mobile Communication System Laboratory, Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea;
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Križanović V, Grgić K, Spišić J, Žagar D. An Advanced Energy-Efficient Environmental Monitoring in Precision Agriculture Using LoRa-Based Wireless Sensor Networks. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:6332. [PMID: 37514629 PMCID: PMC10386723 DOI: 10.3390/s23146332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Sensor networks, as a special subtype of wireless networks, consist of sets of wirelessly connected sensor nodes often placed in hard-to-reach environments. Therefore, it is expected that sensor nodes will not be powered from the power grid. Instead, sensor nodes have their own power sources, the replacement of which is often impractical and requires additional costs, so it is necessary to ensure minimum energy consumption. For that reason, the energy efficiency of wireless sensor networks used for monitoring environmental parameters is essential, especially in remote networking scenarios. In this paper, an overview of the latest research progress on wireless sensor networks based on LoRa was provided. Furthermore, analyses of energy consumption of sensor nodes used in agriculture to observe environmental parameters were conducted using the results of real measurements in the field, as well as simulations carried out based on collected data about real equipment. Optimization methods of energy consumption, in terms of choosing the appropriate data collection processes from the conducted field measurements, as well as the settings of network radio parameters imitating real conditions used in conducted simulations were highlighted. In the analyses, special emphasis was placed on choosing the optimal packet size. Unlike in other papers analyzing energy efficiency of LoRa communication, in this paper, it was proven that the adjustment of the transmission speed to the actual size of the packet is important for better energy efficiency of communication and that it can reduce energy consumption considerably. Moreover, in the paper, the contents of a packet that can be used in precision agriculture is suggested in order to prove that the 6-bit packet is sufficient for energy-efficient collection of parameters from the environment, in contrast to the 11-bit packets used in standard commercially available equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Višnja Križanović
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Krešimir Grgić
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Josip Spišić
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Drago Žagar
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
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12
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Čulík K, Štefancová V, Hrudkay K. Application of Wireless Magnetic Sensors in the Urban Environment and Their Accuracy Verification. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:5740. [PMID: 37420903 DOI: 10.3390/s23125740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
In a smart city, sensors are essential elements-the source of up-to-date traffic information. This article deals with magnetic sensors connected to wireless sensor networks (WSNs). They have a low investment cost, a long lifetime, and easy installation. However, it is still necessary to disturb the road surface locally during their installation. All road lanes to and from the city center of Žilina have sensors that send data at five-minute intervals. They send up-to-date information about the traffic flow's intensity, speed, and composition. The LoRa network ensures the data transmission, but in the event of failure, the 4G/LTE modem realizes the backup transmission. The disadvantage of this application of sensors is their accuracy. The research task was to compare the outputs from the WSN with a traffic survey. The appropriate method for the traffic survey on the selected road profile is a video recording and speed measurement using the Sierzega radar. The results show distorted values, mainly for short intervals. The most accurate output from magnetic sensors is the number of vehicles. On the other hand, traffic flow composition and speed measurement are relatively inaccurate because it is not easy to identify vehicles based on dynamic length. Another problem with sensors is frequent communication outages, which cause an accumulation of values after the outage ends. The secondary objective of the paper is to describe the traffic sensor network and its publicly accessible database. In the end, there are several proposals for data usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristián Čulík
- University Science Park, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 1, 01026 Žilina, Slovakia
| | - Vladimíra Štefancová
- Department of Railway Transport, Faculty of Operation and Economics of Transport and Communications, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 1, 01026 Žilina, Slovakia
| | - Karol Hrudkay
- University Science Park, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 1, 01026 Žilina, Slovakia
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13
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Prauzek M, Kucova T, Konecny J, Adamikova M, Gaiova K, Mikus M, Pospisil P, Andriukaitis D, Zilys M, Martinkauppi B, Koziorek J. IoT Sensor Challenges for Geothermal Energy Installations Monitoring: A Survey. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:5577. [PMID: 37420742 DOI: 10.3390/s23125577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Geothermal energy installations are becoming increasingly common in new city developments and renovations. With a broad range of technological applications and improvements in this field, the demand for suitable monitoring technologies and control processes for geothermal energy installations is also growing. This article identifies opportunities for the future development and deployment of IoT sensors applied to geothermal energy installations. The first part of the survey describes the technologies and applications of various sensor types. Sensors that monitor temperature, flow rate and other mechanical parameters are presented with a technological background and their potential applications. The second part of the article surveys Internet-of-Things (IoT), communication technology and cloud solutions applicable to geothermal energy monitoring, with a focus on IoT node designs, data transmission technologies and cloud services. Energy harvesting technologies and edge computing methods are also reviewed. The survey concludes with a discussion of research challenges and an outline of new areas of application for monitoring geothermal installations and innovating technologies to produce IoT sensor solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Prauzek
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Tereza Kucova
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Jaromir Konecny
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Adamikova
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Karolina Gaiova
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Mikus
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Pospisil
- Department of Geotechnics and Underground Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Darius Andriukaitis
- Department of Electronics Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, 44249 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Mindaugas Zilys
- Department of Electronics Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, 44249 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | | | - Jiri Koziorek
- Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
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14
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Katambire VN, Musabe R, Uwitonze A, Mukanyiligira D. Battery-Powered RSU Running Time Monitoring and Prediction Using ML Model Based on Received Signal Strength and Data Transmission Frequency in V2I Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3536. [PMID: 37050596 PMCID: PMC10099191 DOI: 10.3390/s23073536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The application of the Internet of Things (IoT), vehicles to infrastructure (V2I) communication and intelligent roadside units (RSU) are promising paradigms to improve road traffic safety. However, for the RSUs to communicate with the vehicles and transmit the data to the remote location, RSUs require enough power and good network quality. Recent advances in technology have improved lithium-ion battery capabilities. However, other complementary methodologies including battery management systems (BMS) have to be developed to provide an early warning sign of the battery's state of health. In this paper, we have evaluated the impact of the received signal strength indication (RSSI) and the current consumption at different transmission frequencies on a static battery-based RSU that depends on the global system for mobile communications (GSM)/general packet radio services (GPRS). Machine learning (ML) models, for instance, Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM), were employed and tested on the collected data and later compared using the coefficient of determination (R2). The models were used to predict the battery current consumption based on the RSSI of the location where the RSUs were imposed and the frequency at which the RSU transmits the data to the remote database. The RF was preferable to SVM for predicting current consumption with an R2 of 98% and 94%, respectively. It is essential to accurately forecast the battery health of RSUs to assess their dependability and running time. The primary duty of the BMS is to estimate the status of the battery and its dynamic operating limits. However, achieving an accurate and robust battery state of charge remains a significant challenge. Referring to that can help road managers make alternative decisions, such as replacing the battery before the RSU power source gets drained. The proposed method can be deployed in other remote WSN and IoT-based applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vienna N. Katambire
- African Center of Excellence in Internet of Things (ACEIoT), College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali P.O. Box 3900, Rwanda
| | | | - Alfred Uwitonze
- African Center of Excellence in Internet of Things (ACEIoT), College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali P.O. Box 3900, Rwanda
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15
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Moiroux-Arvis L, Royer L, Sarramia D, De Sousa G, Claude A, Latour D, Roussel E, Voldoire O, Chardon P, Vandaële R, Améglio T, Chanet JP. ConnecSenS, a Versatile IoT Platform for Environment Monitoring: Bring Water to Cloud. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2896. [PMID: 36991607 PMCID: PMC10059706 DOI: 10.3390/s23062896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is having an increasingly rapid impact on ecosystems and particularly on the issue of water resources. The Internet of Things and communication technologies have now reached a level of maturity that allows sensors to be deployed more easily on sites to monitor them. The communicating node based on LoRaWAN technology presented in this article is open and allows the interfacing of numerous sensors for designing long-term environmental monitoring systems of isolated sites. The data integration in the cloud is ensured by a workflow driving the storage and indexing of data, allowing a simple and efficient use of the data for different users (scientists, administration, citizens) through specific dashboards and extractions. This article presents this infrastructure through environmental monitoring use cases related to water resources.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laurent Royer
- Laboratoire de Physique de Clermont, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - David Sarramia
- Laboratoire de Physique de Clermont, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Gil De Sousa
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, UR TSCF, 63178 Aubière, France
| | - Alexandre Claude
- Laboratoire de Physique de Clermont, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Delphine Latour
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Genome, Environnement (LMGE), UMR, 6023 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Erwan Roussel
- CNRS, GEOLAB, Université Clermont Auvergne, 63145 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Olivier Voldoire
- CNRS, GEOLAB, Université Clermont Auvergne, 63145 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Patrick Chardon
- Laboratoire de Physique de Clermont, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Richard Vandaële
- Laboratoire de Physique de Clermont, Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS/IN2P3, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Thierry Améglio
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, PIAF, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
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16
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Sisinni E, Fernandes Carvalho D, Depari A, Bellagente P, Flammini A, Pasetti M, Rinaldi S, Ferrari P. Assessing a Methodology for Evaluating the Latency of IPv6 with SCHC Compression in LoRaWAN Deployments. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2407. [PMID: 36904611 PMCID: PMC10007078 DOI: 10.3390/s23052407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) approach relies on the use of the Internet Protocol (IP) as a pervasive network protocol. IP acts as a "glue" for interconnecting end devices (on the field side) and end users, leveraging on very diverse lower-level and upper-level protocols. The need for scalability would suggest the adoption of IPv6, but the large overhead and payloads do not match with the constraints dictated by common wireless solutions. For this reason, compression strategies have been proposed to avoid redundant information in the IPv6 header and to provide fragmentation and reassembly of long messages. For example, the Static Context Header Compression (SCHC) protocol has been recently referenced by the LoRa Alliance as a standard IPv6 compression scheme for LoRaWAN-based applications. In this way, IoT end points can seamlessly share an end-to-end IP link. However, implementation details are out of the specifications' scope. For this reason, formal test procedures for comparing solutions from different providers are important. In this paper, a test method for assessing architectural delays of real-world deployments of SCHC-over-LoRaWAN implementations is presented. The original proposal includes a mapping phase, for identifying information flows, and a subsequent evaluation phase, in which flows are timestamped and time-related metrics are computed. The proposed strategy has been tested in different use cases involving LoRaWAN backends deployed all around the world. The feasibility of the proposed approach has been tested by measuring the end-to-end latency of IPv6 data in sample use cases, obtaining a delay of less than 1 s. However, the main result is the demonstration that the suggested methodology permits a comparison of the behavior of IPv6 with SCHC-over-LoRaWAN, allowing the optimization of choices and parameters during deployment and commissioning of both infrastructure components and software.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Sisinni
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, Via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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17
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Mugerwa D, Nam Y, Choi H, Shin Y, Lee E. SF-Partition-Based Clustering and Relaying Scheme for Resolving Near-Far Unfairness in IoT Multihop LoRa Networks. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22239332. [PMID: 36502034 PMCID: PMC9737811 DOI: 10.3390/s22239332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Long range (LoRa) is one of the most successful low-power wide-area networking technologies because it is ideally suited for long-distance, low-bit rate, and low-power communications in the unlicensed sub-GHz spectrum utilized for Internet of things (IoT) networks. The effectiveness of LoRa depends on the link budget (i.e., spreading factor (SF), bandwidth (BW), and transmission power (TX)). Due to the near-far effect, the allocation of a link budget to LoRa devices (LDs) in large coverage regions is unfair between them depending on their distance to the GW. Thus, more transmission opportunities are given to some LDs to the detriment of other LD's opportunities. Numerous studies have been conducted to address the prevalent near-far fairness problem. Due to the absence of a tractable analytical model for fairness in the LoRa network, however, it is still difficult to solve this problem completely. Thus, we propose an SF-partition-based clustering and relaying (SFPCR) scheme to achieve enormous LD connectivity with fairness in IoT multihop LoRa networks. For the SF partition, the SFPCR scheme determines the suitable partitioning threshold point for bridging packet delivery success probability gaps between SF regions, namely, the lower SF zone (LSFZ) and the higher SF zone (HSFZ). To avoid long-distance transmissions to the GW, the HSFZ constructs a density-based subspace clustering that generates clusters of arbitrary shape for adjacent LDs and selects cluster headers by using a binary score representation. To support reliable data transmissions to the GW by multihop communications, the LSFZ offers a relay LD selection that ideally chooses the best relay LD to extend uplink transmissions from LDs in the HSFZ. Through simulations, we show that the proposed SFPCR scheme exhibits the highest success probability of 65.7%, followed by the FSRC scheme at 44.6%, the mesh scheme at 34.2%, and lastly the cluster-based scheme at 29.4%, and it conserves the energy of LDs compared with the existing schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dick Mugerwa
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngju Nam
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunseok Choi
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongje Shin
- Research Institute for Computer and Information Communication, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Euisin Lee
- School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence:
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18
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Ragnoli M, Colaiuda D, Leoni A, Ferri G, Barile G, Rotilio M, Laurini E, De Berardinis P, Stornelli V. A LoRaWAN Multi-Technological Architecture for Construction Site Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22228685. [PMID: 36433281 PMCID: PMC9696629 DOI: 10.3390/s22228685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
It is necessary to ensure safety in terms of health and accidents through the real-time monitoring of the construction site environment and workers. This problem has become of great importance due to the economic and social implications. Therefore, a sensor-based approach has been found to be beneficial in Building Information Modeling (BIM). Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies are well-suited for the deployment of monitoring systems. A suitable technical solution for node communication in a WSN is Long Range (LoRa) modulation technology. In this study, an autonomous LoRa-based system for the monitoring of a construction site in Lungro, Calabria, Italy, is presented. The spatial monitoring of working personnel is achieved by employing a tracker device with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and a Global Positioning System (GPS) device. Accesses of personnel and gear to the site are registered using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags equipped with protective gear. Fixed-position solar-powered sensor nodes are also employed for structural monitoring, i.e., movement sensors are used to monitor the variation of scaffolding, building structures, and under-work housing inclinations. Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) gateways interface with the nodes and the internet for data exchange, enabling an Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm for the monitoring solution. A comprehensive overview of the workers and structural nodes, along with the RFID access management system and LoRaWAN gateway features, is provided in this article. A description of the web interface is also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Ragnoli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Davide Colaiuda
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Alfiero Leoni
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ferri
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Gianluca Barile
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Design Methodologies for Embedded Controllers, Wireless Interconnect and System-on-Chip, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Marianna Rotilio
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Eleonora Laurini
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Pierluigi De Berardinis
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Stornelli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Design Methodologies for Embedded Controllers, Wireless Interconnect and System-on-Chip, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
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19
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Branch P. Measurements and Models of 915 MHz LoRa Radio Propagation in an Underground Gold Mine. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:8653. [PMID: 36433253 PMCID: PMC9699343 DOI: 10.3390/s22228653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Underground mining increasingly relies on wireless communications for its operations. The move to automating many underground mining processes makes an understanding of the propagation characteristics of key wireless technologies underground a topic of considerable importance. LoRa has great potential for communications in underground mines, but data on its propagation are quite scarce. In this paper, we describe our measurements of LoRa radio propagation in an underground gold mine. We took measurements in an extraction tunnel with line of sight and in extraction and access tunnels without line of sight. We observed excellent propagation, both with and without line of sight. Our observations support claims by others that the steel-lined tunnels act as a waveguide. As well as reporting measurements, we also developed models of propagation. For line of sight, we show that pathloss is well modelled by a power law with pathloss index of 1.25 and that variability of signal strength is well modelled by a lognormal distribution. We also successfully modelled propagation without line of sight over short distances using a Fresnel Diffraction and Free Space model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Branch
- School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne 3122, Australia
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20
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Sadhu PK, Yanambaka VP, Abdelgawad A. Internet of Things: Security and Solutions Survey. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22197433. [PMID: 36236531 PMCID: PMC9571254 DOI: 10.3390/s22197433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The overwhelming acceptance and growing need for Internet of Things (IoT) products in each aspect of everyday living is creating a promising prospect for the involvement of humans, data, and procedures. The vast areas create opportunities from home to industry to make an automated lifecycle. Human life is involved in enormous applications such as intelligent transportation, intelligent healthcare, smart grid, smart city, etc. A thriving surface is created that can affect society, the economy, the environment, politics, and health through diverse security threats. Generally, IoT devices are susceptible to security breaches, and the development of industrial systems could pose devastating security vulnerabilities. To build a reliable security shield, the challenges encountered must be embraced. Therefore, this survey paper is primarily aimed to assist researchers by classifying attacks/vulnerabilities based on objects. The method of attacks and relevant countermeasures are provided for each kind of attack in this work. Case studies of the most important applications of the IoT are highlighted concerning security solutions. The survey of security solutions is not limited to traditional secret key-based cryptographic solutions, moreover physical unclonable functions (PUF)-based solutions and blockchain are illustrated. The pros and cons of each security solution are also discussed here. Furthermore, challenges and recommendations are presented in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pintu Kumar Sadhu
- College of Science and Engineering, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48858, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Venkata P. Yanambaka
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX 76204, USA
| | - Ahmed Abdelgawad
- College of Science and Engineering, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48858, USA
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21
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Lazaro M, Lazaro A, González B, Villarino R, Girbau D. Long-Range Wireless System for U-Value Assessment Using a Low-Cost Heat Flux Sensor. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7259. [PMID: 36236358 PMCID: PMC9572765 DOI: 10.3390/s22197259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The present study exposes an economical and easy-to-use system to assess the heat transfer in building envelopes by determining the U-value. Nowadays these systems require long wires and a host to collect and process the data. In this work, a multi-point system for simultaneous heat flux measurement has been proposed. The aim is to reduce the long measurement time and the cost of thermal isolation evaluations in large buildings. The system proposed consists of a low-cost 3D-printed heat flux sensor integrated with a LoRa transceiver and two temperature sensors. The heat flux (HF) sensor was compared and calibrated with a commercial HF sensor from the Fluxteq brand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Lazaro
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Antonio Lazaro
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Benito González
- Institute for Applied Microelectronics, Campus Universitario de Tafira, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Ramon Villarino
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - David Girbau
- Department of Electronics, Electrics and Automatic Control Engineering, Rovira i Virgili University, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
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22
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Alghamdi AM, Khairullah EF, Al mojamed MM. LoRaWAN Performance Analysis for a Water Monitoring and Leakage Detection System in a Housing Complex. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22197188. [PMID: 36236287 PMCID: PMC9573328 DOI: 10.3390/s22197188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The automation of water leakage detection and monitoring systems has recently been made possible by the Internet of Things (IoT). However, the high cost is an obstacle when applying a network over a large area. The Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) was created specifically to address long-range IoT applications. The Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the most common LPWANs. In this study, a method for monitoring and detecting water leakage in a housing complex was tested using LoRaWAN. Water leakage was detected using a low-pressure system model comprising a water meter, presser sensor, and smart valve within a LoRa node. This study investigates the use of LoRaWAN for water monitoring and leakage detection by implementing a comprehensive case study to identify LoRaWAN's feasibility, reliability, and scalability for water monitoring and leakage detection in simulated scenarios. The housing complex varied in size and number of nodes. The LoRaWAN was evaluated by the FloRa simulator package through the Objective Modular Network Testbed (OMNeT++) platform. The results indicated that it was an efficient means of water monitoring and leakage detection in housing complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atheer M. Alghamdi
- Information Technology Department, Faculty of Computers and Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 23713, Saudi Arabia
| | - Enas F. Khairullah
- Information Technology Department, Faculty of Computers and Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 23713, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad M. Al mojamed
- Computer Science Department, Computing College-Al-Qunfudah, UMM Al-QURA University, Al-Qunfudah 28814, Saudi Arabia
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23
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Rivera Guzmán EF, Mañay Chochos ED, Chiliquinga Malliquinga MD, Baldeón Egas PF, Toasa Guachi RM. LoRa Network-Based System for Monitoring the Agricultural Sector in Andean Areas: Case Study Ecuador. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22186743. [PMID: 36146093 PMCID: PMC9505347 DOI: 10.3390/s22186743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This article focuses on the development of a system based on the long-range network (LoRa), which is used for monitoring the agricultural sector and is implemented in areas of the Andean region of Ecuador. The LoRa network is applied for the analysis of climatic parameters by monitoring temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture and ultraviolet radiation. It consists of two transmitter nodes and one receiver node, a LoRa Gateway with two communication channels for data reception and one for data transmission, and an IoT server. In addition, a graphical user interface has been developed in Thinger.io to monitor the crops and remotely control the actuators. The research conducted contains useful information for the deployment of a LoRa network in agricultural crops located in mountainous areas above 2910 m.a.s.l., where there are terrains with irregular orography, reaching a coverage of 50 hectares and a range distance of 875 m to the farthest point in the community of Chirinche Bajo, Ecuador. An average RSSI of the radio link of -122 dBm was obtained in areas with a 15% slope and 130 m difference in height according to the Gateway, where the presence of vegetation, eucalyptus trees and no line-of-sight generated interference to the radio signal. The success rate of PDR packet delivery with an SF of nine, had a better performance, with values of no less than 76% and 92% in uplink and downlink respectively. Finally, the technological gap is reduced, since the network reaches places where traditional technologies do not exist, allowing farmers to make timely decisions in the production process in the face of adverse weather events.
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24
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Arbab-Zavar B, Sharkh SM, Palacios-Garcia EJ, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Reducing Detrimental Communication Failure Impacts in Microgrids by Using Deep Learning Techniques. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6006. [PMID: 36015769 PMCID: PMC9416427 DOI: 10.3390/s22166006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A Microgrid (MG), like any other smart and interoperable power system, requires device-to-device (D2D) communication structures in order to function effectively. This communication system, however, is not immune to intentional or unintentional failures. This paper discusses the effects of communication link failures on MG control and management and proposes solutions based on enhancing message content to mitigate their detritus impact. In order to achieve this goal, generation and consumption forecasting using deep learning (DL) methods at the next time steps is used. The architecture of an energy management system (EMS) and an energy storage system (ESS) that are able to operate in coordination is introduced and evaluated by simulation tests, which show promising results and illustrate the efficacy of the proposed methods. It is important to mention that, in this paper, three dissimilar topics namely MG control/management, DL-based forecasting, and D2D communication architectures are employed and this combination is proven to be capable of achieving the aforesaid objective.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suleiman M. Sharkh
- Faculty of Engineering and the Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Emilio J. Palacios-Garcia
- Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT), KU Leuven, ELECTA, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- EnergyVille, Thor Park 8310, BE-3600 Genk, Belgium
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25
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Idris S, Karunathilake T, Förster A. Survey and Comparative Study of LoRa-Enabled Simulators for Internet of Things and Wireless Sensor Networks. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22155546. [PMID: 35898045 PMCID: PMC9370880 DOI: 10.3390/s22155546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the most important emerging technologies, spanning a myriad of possible applications, especially with the increasing number and variety of connected devices. Several network simulation tools have been developed with widely varying focuses and used in many research fields. Thus, it is critical to simulate the work of such systems and applications before actual deployment. This paper explores the landscape of available IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) simulators and compares their performance using the Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) communication technology called LoRa (Long Range), which has recently gained a lot of interest. Using a systematic approach, we present a chronological survey of available IoT and WSNs simulation tools. With this, we categorized and content-analyzed published scientific papers in the IoT and WSNs simulation tools research domain by highlighting the simulation tools, study type, scope of study and performance measures of the studies. Next, we present an overview of LoRa/LoRaWAN technology by considering its architecture, transmission parameters, device classes and available simulation tools. Furthermore, we discussed three popular open-source simulation tools/frameworks, namely, NS-3, OMNeT++ (FLoRa) and LoRaSim, for the simulation of LoRa/LoRaWAN networks. Finally, we evaluate their performance in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), CPU utilization, memory usage, execution time and the number of collisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadiq Idris
- Communication and Information Technology, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Thenuka Karunathilake
- Sustainable Communication Networks, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany; (T.K.); (A.F.)
| | - Anna Förster
- Sustainable Communication Networks, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany; (T.K.); (A.F.)
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26
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Prasad N, Lynggaard P. LoRaWan Sensitivity Analysis and Prevention Strategies Against Wireless DoS Attacks. WIRELESS PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 126:3663-3675. [PMID: 35756171 PMCID: PMC9209830 DOI: 10.1007/s11277-022-09884-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
New wireless IoT technology provides smart pseudo intelligent solutions that will have a big impact on the infrastructures and the society in the future to come. In the last decade, many new low power longrange wireless technologies have emerged to support these wireless IoT based solutions. One of the most promising and commonly accepted technologies is LoRaWAN. Unfortunately, the introduction and deployment of a new wireless technology provides new risks and new security challenges. Some of these challenges can be categorized as "critical", which means that if they fail, this will have major consequences for the society's critical infrastructure and the society as a hole. In this paper one of these critical challenges is analyzed in terms of wireless jamming attacks that cause fatale denial-of-services on the LoRaWAN wireless infrastructure and connectivity. This analysis is based on a mathematical simulation model which is described and elaborated. By using this model on a selected societal critical service example, a sensitivity analysis in terms of jamming and DoS attacks is performed, provided, and elaborated. Finally, some selected prevention strategies to avoid and counter-fight these attacks are presented, discussed, and elaborated.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Prasad
- CTIF Global Capsule (CGC), School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus University, Herning, Denmark
| | - P. Lynggaard
- Technical University of Denmark, Ballerup, Denmark
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27
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Tu Y, Tang H, Hu W. An Application of a LPWAN for Upgrading Proximal Soil Sensing Systems. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:4333. [PMID: 35746114 PMCID: PMC9229728 DOI: 10.3390/s22124333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the Internet of Things (IoT), based on low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) wireless communication technology, has developed rapidly. On the one hand, the IoT makes it possible to conduct low-cost, low-power, wide-coverage, and real-time soil monitoring in fields. On the other hand, many proximal soil sensor devices designed based on conventional communication methods that are stored in an inventory face elimination. Considering the idea of saving resources and costs, this paper applied LPWAN technology to an inventoried proximal soil sensor device, by designing an attachment hardware system (AHS) and realizing technical upgrades. The results of the experimental tests proved that the sensor device, after upgrading, could work for several years with only a battery power supply, and the effective wireless communication coverage was nearly 1 km in a typical suburban farming environment. Therefore, the new device not only retained the original mature sensing technology of the sensor device, but also exhibited ultralow power consumption and long-distance transmission, which are advantages of the LPWAN; gave full play to the application value and economic value of the devices stored in inventory; and saved resources and costs. The proposed approach also provides a reference for applying LPWAN technology to a wider range of inventoried sensor devices for technical upgrading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghui Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; (Y.T.); (H.T.)
| | - Haoye Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; (Y.T.); (H.T.)
| | - Wenyou Hu
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
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28
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Loukil S, Fourati LC, Nayyar A, Chee KWA. Analysis of LoRaWAN 1.0 and 1.1 Protocols Security Mechanisms. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:3717. [PMID: 35632125 PMCID: PMC9142980 DOI: 10.3390/s22103717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
LoRaWAN is a low power wide area network (LPWAN) technology protocol introduced by the LoRa Alliance in 2015. It was designed for its namesake features: long range, low power, low data rate, and wide area networks. Over the years, several proposals on protocol specifications have addressed various challenges in LoRaWAN, focusing on its architecture and security issues. All of these specifications must coexist, giving rise to the compatibility issues impacting the sustainability of this technology. This paper studies the compatibility issues in LoRaWAN protocols. First, we detail the different protocol specifications already disclosed by the LoRa Alliance in two major versions, v1.0 and v1.1. This is done through presenting two scenarios where we discuss the communication and security mechanisms. In the first scenario, we describe how an end node (ED) and network server (NS) implementing LoRaWAN v1.0 generate session security keys and exchange messages for v1.0. In the second scenario, we describe how an ED v1.1 and an NS v1.1 communicate after generating security session keys. Next, we highlight the compatibility issues between the components implementing the two different LoRaWAN Specifications (mainly v1.0 and v1.1). Next, we present two new scenarios (scenarios 3 and 4) interchanging the ED and NS versions. In scenario three, we detail how an ED implementing LoRaWAN v1.1 communicates with an NS v1.0. Conversely, in scenario four, we explain how an ED v1.0 and an NS v1.1 communicate. In all these four scenarios, we highlight the concerns with security mechanism: show security session keys are generated and how integrity and confidentiality are guaranteed in LoRaWAN. At the end, we present a comparative table of these four compatibility scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slim Loukil
- Higher Institute of Business Administration, University of Sfax, Sfax 3018, Tunisia;
| | - Lamia Chaari Fourati
- ISIMS & SM@RTS/CRNS (Laboratory of Signals, systeMs, aRtificial Intelligence and neTworkS), Sfax 3018, Tunisia;
| | - Anand Nayyar
- Graduate School, Faculty of Information Technology, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam;
| | - K.-W.-A. Chee
- School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
- School of Electronics Engineering, College of IT Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
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29
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An Adaptive LoRaWAN MAC Protocol for Event Detection Applications. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22093538. [PMID: 35591228 PMCID: PMC9104269 DOI: 10.3390/s22093538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the Internet of Things (IoT) is growing rapidly and gaining ground in a variety of fields. Such fields are environmental disasters, such as forest fires, that are becoming more common because of the environmental crisis and there is a need to properly manage them. Therefore, utilizing IoT for event detection and monitoring is an effective solution. A technique for monitoring such events over a large area is proposed in this research. This work makes use of the Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) protocol, which is capable to connect low-power devices distributed on large geographical areas. A learning-automata-based hybrid MAC model is suggested to reduce the transmission delay, when a small part of the network produces event packets stemming from an event occurrence that is related to environmental monitoring applications, such as events related to forest fires. The proposed hybrid MAC is evaluated via simulation, which indicates that it achieves significantly higher performance in terms of packet delay, when compared to traditional LoRaWAN schemes.
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30
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Mohamed A, Wang F, Butun I, Qadir J, Lagerström R, Gastaldo P, Caviglia DD. Enhancing Cyber Security of LoRaWAN Gateways under Adversarial Attacks. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:3498. [PMID: 35591187 PMCID: PMC9099514 DOI: 10.3390/s22093498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) has disrupted the IT landscape drastically, and Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one specification that enables these IoT devices to have access to the Internet. Former security analyses have suggested that the gateways in LoRaWAN in their current state are susceptible to a wide variety of malicious attacks, which can be notoriously difficult to mitigate since gateways are seen as obedient relays by design. These attacks, if not addressed, can cause malfunctions and loss of efficiency in the network traffic. As a solution to this unique problem, this paper presents a novel certificate authentication technique that enhances the cyber security of gateways in the LoRaWAN network. The proposed technique considers a public key infrastructure (PKI) solution that considers a two-tier certificate authority (CA) setup, such as a root-CA and intermediate-CA. This solution is promising, as the simulation results validate that about 66.67% of the packets that are arriving from an illegitimate gateway (GW) are discarded in our implemented secure and reliable solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Mohamed
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Franz Wang
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Ismail Butun
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.M.); (F.W.)
- Department of Computer Engineering, Konya Food and Agriculture University, Konya 42080, Turkey
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal University of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden; or (R.L.)
| | - Junaid Qadir
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal University of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden; or (R.L.)
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering and Naval Architecture (DITEN), University of Genoa, 16145 Genoa, Italy; (P.G.); (D.D.C.)
| | - Robert Lagerström
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal University of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden; or (R.L.)
| | - Paolo Gastaldo
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering and Naval Architecture (DITEN), University of Genoa, 16145 Genoa, Italy; (P.G.); (D.D.C.)
| | - Daniele D. Caviglia
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering and Naval Architecture (DITEN), University of Genoa, 16145 Genoa, Italy; (P.G.); (D.D.C.)
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31
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Holzinger A, Saranti A, Angerschmid A, Retzlaff CO, Gronauer A, Pejakovic V, Medel-Jimenez F, Krexner T, Gollob C, Stampfer K. Digital Transformation in Smart Farm and Forest Operations Needs Human-Centered AI: Challenges and Future Directions. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:3043. [PMID: 35459028 PMCID: PMC9029836 DOI: 10.3390/s22083043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The main impetus for the global efforts toward the current digital transformation in almost all areas of our daily lives is due to the great successes of artificial intelligence (AI), and in particular, the workhorse of AI, statistical machine learning (ML). The intelligent analysis, modeling, and management of agricultural and forest ecosystems, and of the use and protection of soils, already play important roles in securing our planet for future generations and will become irreplaceable in the future. Technical solutions must encompass the entire agricultural and forestry value chain. The process of digital transformation is supported by cyber-physical systems enabled by advances in ML, the availability of big data and increasing computing power. For certain tasks, algorithms today achieve performances that exceed human levels. The challenge is to use multimodal information fusion, i.e., to integrate data from different sources (sensor data, images, *omics), and explain to an expert why a certain result was achieved. However, ML models often react to even small changes, and disturbances can have dramatic effects on their results. Therefore, the use of AI in areas that matter to human life (agriculture, forestry, climate, health, etc.) has led to an increased need for trustworthy AI with two main components: explainability and robustness. One step toward making AI more robust is to leverage expert knowledge. For example, a farmer/forester in the loop can often bring in experience and conceptual understanding to the AI pipeline-no AI can do this. Consequently, human-centered AI (HCAI) is a combination of "artificial intelligence" and "natural intelligence" to empower, amplify, and augment human performance, rather than replace people. To achieve practical success of HCAI in agriculture and forestry, this article identifies three important frontier research areas: (1) intelligent information fusion; (2) robotics and embodied intelligence; and (3) augmentation, explanation, and verification for trusted decision support. This goal will also require an agile, human-centered design approach for three generations (G). G1: Enabling easily realizable applications through immediate deployment of existing technology. G2: Medium-term modification of existing technology. G3: Advanced adaptation and evolution beyond state-of-the-art.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Holzinger
- Human-Centered AI Lab, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Wien, Austria; (A.S.); (A.A.); (C.O.R.)
- xAI Lab, Alberta Machine Intelligence Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T5J 3B1, Canada
| | - Anna Saranti
- Human-Centered AI Lab, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Wien, Austria; (A.S.); (A.A.); (C.O.R.)
| | - Alessa Angerschmid
- Human-Centered AI Lab, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Wien, Austria; (A.S.); (A.A.); (C.O.R.)
| | - Carl Orge Retzlaff
- Human-Centered AI Lab, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1190 Wien, Austria; (A.S.); (A.A.); (C.O.R.)
- DAI Lab, Technical University Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Gronauer
- Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria; (A.G.); (V.P.); (F.M.-J.); (T.K.)
| | - Vladimir Pejakovic
- Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria; (A.G.); (V.P.); (F.M.-J.); (T.K.)
| | - Francisco Medel-Jimenez
- Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria; (A.G.); (V.P.); (F.M.-J.); (T.K.)
| | - Theresa Krexner
- Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria; (A.G.); (V.P.); (F.M.-J.); (T.K.)
| | - Christoph Gollob
- Institute of Forest Growth, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria;
| | - Karl Stampfer
- Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, 1180 Wien, Austria;
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32
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LoRa Based IoT Platform for Remote Monitoring of Large-Scale Agriculture Farms in Chile. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22082824. [PMID: 35458808 PMCID: PMC9028925 DOI: 10.3390/s22082824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, conventional agriculture farms lack high-level automated management due to the limited number of installed sensor nodes and measuring devices. Recent progress of the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies will play an essential role in future smart farming by enabling automated operations with minimum human intervention. The main objective of this work is to design and implement a flexible IoT-based platform for remote monitoring of agriculture farms of different scales, enabling continuous data collection from various IoT devices (sensors, actuators, meteorological masts, and drones). Such data will be available for end-users to improve decision-making and for training and validating advanced prediction algorithms. Unlike related works that concentrate on specific applications or evaluate technical aspects of specific layers of the IoT stack, this work considers a versatile approach and technical aspects at four layers: farm perception layer, sensors and actuators layer, communication layer, and application layer. The proposed solutions have been designed, implemented, and assessed for remote monitoring of plants, soil, and environmental conditions based on LoRaWAN technology. Results collected through both simulation and experimental validation show that the platform can be used to obtain valuable analytics of real-time monitoring that enable decisions and actions such as, for example, controlling the irrigation system or generating alarms. The contribution of this article relies on proposing a flexible hardware and software platform oriented on monitoring agriculture farms of different scales, based on LoRaWAN technology. Even though previous work can be found using similar technologies, they focus on specific applications or evaluate technical aspects of specific layers of the IoT stack.
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Fujdiak R, Mikhaylov K, Pospisil J, Povalac A, Misurec J. Insights into the Issue of Deploying a Private LoRaWAN. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:2042. [PMID: 35271189 PMCID: PMC8914651 DOI: 10.3390/s22052042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The last decade has transformed wireless access technologies and crystallized a new direction for the internet of things (IoT). The modern low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies have been introduced to deliver connectivity for billions of devices while keeping the costs and consumption low, and the range of communication high. While the 5G (fifth generation mobile network) LPWAN-like radio technologies, namely NB-IoT (narrowband internet of things) and LTE-M (long-term evolution machine type communication) are emerging, the long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) remains extremely popular. One unique feature of this technology, which distinguishes it from the competitors, is the possibility of supporting both public and private network deployments. In this paper we focus on this aspect and deliver original results comparing the performance of the private and public LoRAWAN deployment options; these results should help understand the LoRaWAN technology and give a clear overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the private versus public approaches. Notably, we carry the comparison along the three dimensions: the communication performance, the security, and the cost analysis. The presented results illustratively demonstrate the differences of the two deployment approaches, and thus can support selection of the most efficient deployment option for a target application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radek Fujdiak
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (A.P.); (J.M.)
| | - Konstantin Mikhaylov
- Centre for Wireless Communications, University of Oulu, Erkki Koiso-Kanttilan Katu 3, 90014 Oulu, Finland;
| | - Jan Pospisil
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (A.P.); (J.M.)
| | - Ales Povalac
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (A.P.); (J.M.)
| | - Jiri Misurec
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (A.P.); (J.M.)
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34
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Bueso MC, Paredes-Parra JM, Mateo-Aroca A, Molina-García A. Sensitive Parameter Analysis for Solar Irradiance Short-Term Forecasting: Application to LoRa-Based Monitoring Technology. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041499. [PMID: 35214398 PMCID: PMC8874705 DOI: 10.3390/s22041499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Due to the relevant penetration of solar PV power plants, an accurate power generation forecasting of these installations is crucial to provide both reliability and stability of current grids. At the same time, PV monitoring requirements are more and more demanded by different agents to provide reliable information regarding performances, efficiencies, and possible predictive maintenance tasks. Under this framework, this paper proposes a methodology to evaluate different LoRa-based PV monitoring architectures and node layouts in terms of short-term solar power generation forecasting. A random forest model is proposed as forecasting method, simplifying the forecasting problem especially when the time series exhibits heteroscedasticity, nonstationarity, and multiple seasonal cycles. This approach provides a sensitive analysis of LoRa parameters in terms of node layout, loss of data, spreading factor and short time intervals to evaluate their influence on PV forecasting accuracy. A case example located in the southeast of Spain is included in the paper to evaluate the proposed analysis. This methodology is applicable to other locations, as well as different LoRa configurations, parameters, and networks structures; providing detailed analysis regarding PV monitoring performances and short-term PV generation forecasting discrepancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- María C. Bueso
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | | | - Antonio Mateo-Aroca
- Department of Automatic, Electrical Engineering and Electronic Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
| | - Angel Molina-García
- Department of Automatic, Electrical Engineering and Electronic Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-968-32-5462
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35
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Katzis K, Berbakov L, Gardašević G, Šveljo O. Breaking Barriers in Emerging Biomedical Applications. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 24:226. [PMID: 35205520 PMCID: PMC8871046 DOI: 10.3390/e24020226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The recent global COVID-19 pandemic has revealed that the current healthcare system in modern society can hardly cope with the increased number of patients. Part of the load can be alleviated by incorporating smart healthcare infrastructure in the current system to enable patient's remote monitoring and personalized treatment. Technological advances in communications and sensing devices have enabled the development of new, portable, and more power-efficient biomedical sensors, as well as innovative healthcare applications. Nevertheless, such applications require reliable, resilient, and secure networks. This paper aims to identify the communication requirements for mass deployment of such smart healthcare sensors by providing the overview of underlying Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. Moreover, it highlights the importance of information theory in understanding the limits and barriers in this emerging field. With this motivation, the paper indicates how data compression and entropy used in security algorithms may pave the way towards mass deployment of such IoT healthcare devices. Future medical practices and paradigms are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Katzis
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, European University Cyprus, Nicosia 2404, Cyprus;
| | - Lazar Berbakov
- Institute Mihajlo Pupin, University of Belgrade, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Gordana Gardašević
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Banja Luka, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
| | - Olivera Šveljo
- Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia;
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36
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Semantic Modeling of a VLC-Enabled Task Automation Platform for Smart Offices. ELECTRONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics11030326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of ambient intelligence has introduced a range of new opportunities to improve people’s well-being. One of these opportunities is the use of these technologies to enhance workplaces and improve employees’ comfort and productivity. However, these technologies often entail two major challenges: the requirement for fast and reliable data transmission between the vast number of devices connected simultaneously, and the interoperability between these devices. Conventional communication technologies present some drawbacks in these kinds of systems, such as lower data rates and electromagnetic interference, which have prompted research into new wireless communication technologies. One of these technologies is visible light communication (VLC), which uses existing light in an environment to transmit data. Its characteristics make it an up-and-coming technology for IoT services but also aggravate the interoperability challenge. To facilitate the continuous communication of the enormous amount of heterogeneous data generated, highly agile data models are required. The semantic approach tackles this problem by switching from ad hoc application-centric representation models and formats to a formal definition of concepts and relationships. This paper aims to advance the state of the art by proposing a semantic vocabulary for an intelligent automation platform with VLC enabled, which benefits from the advantages of VLC while ensuring the scalability and interoperability of all system components. Thus, the main contributions of this work are threefold: (i) the design and definition of a semantic model for an automation platform; (ii) the development of a prototype automation platform based on a VLC-based communication system; and (iii) the integration and validation of the proposed semantic model in the VLC-based automation platform.
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Abstract
Camera traps deployed in remote locations provide an effective method for ecologists to monitor and study wildlife in a non-invasive way. However, current camera traps suffer from two problems. First, the images are manually classified and counted, which is expensive. Second, due to manual coding, the results are often stale by the time they get to the ecologists. Using the Internet of Things (IoT) combined with deep learning represents a good solution for both these problems, as the images can be classified automatically, and the results immediately made available to ecologists. This paper proposes an IoT architecture that uses deep learning on edge devices to convey animal classification results to a mobile app using the LoRaWAN low-power, wide-area network. The primary goal of the proposed approach is to reduce the cost of the wildlife monitoring process for ecologists, and to provide real-time animal sightings data from the camera traps in the field. Camera trap image data consisting of 66,400 images were used to train the InceptionV3, MobileNetV2, ResNet18, EfficientNetB1, DenseNet121, and Xception neural network models. While performance of the trained models was statistically different (Kruskal–Wallis: Accuracy H(5) = 22.34, p < 0.05; F1-score H(5) = 13.82, p = 0.0168), there was only a 3% difference in the F1-score between the worst (MobileNet V2) and the best model (Xception). Moreover, the models made similar errors (Adjusted Rand Index (ARI) > 0.88 and Adjusted Mutual Information (AMU) > 0.82). Subsequently, the best model, Xception (Accuracy = 96.1%; F1-score = 0.87; F1-Score = 0.97 with oversampling), was optimized and deployed on the Raspberry Pi, Google Coral, and Nvidia Jetson edge devices using both TenorFlow Lite and TensorRT frameworks. Optimizing the models to run on edge devices reduced the average macro F1-Score to 0.7, and adversely affected the minority classes, reducing their F1-score to as low as 0.18. Upon stress testing, by processing 1000 images consecutively, Jetson Nano, running a TensorRT model, outperformed others with a latency of 0.276 s/image (s.d. = 0.002) while consuming an average current of 1665.21 mA. Raspberry Pi consumed the least average current (838.99 mA) with a ten times worse latency of 2.83 s/image (s.d. = 0.036). Nano was the only reasonable option as an edge device because it could capture most animals whose maximum speeds were below 80 km/h, including goats, lions, ostriches, etc. While the proposed architecture is viable, unbalanced data remain a challenge and the results can potentially be improved by using object detection to reduce imbalances and by exploring semi-supervised learning.
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Bravo-Arrabal J, Toscano-Moreno M, Fernandez-Lozano JJ, Mandow A, Gomez-Ruiz JA, García-Cerezo A. The Internet of Cooperative Agents Architecture (X-IoCA) for Robots, Hybrid Sensor Networks, and MEC Centers in Complex Environments: A Search and Rescue Case Study. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21237843. [PMID: 34883848 PMCID: PMC8659820 DOI: 10.3390/s21237843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cloud robotics and advanced communications can foster a step-change in cooperative robots and hybrid wireless sensor networks (H-WSN) for demanding environments (e.g., disaster response, mining, demolition, and nuclear sites) by enabling the timely sharing of data and computational resources between robot and human teams. However, the operational complexity of such multi-agent systems requires defining effective architectures, coping with implementation details, and testing in realistic deployments. This article proposes X-IoCA, an Internet of robotic things (IoRT) and communication architecture consisting of a hybrid and heterogeneous network of wireless transceivers (H2WTN), based on LoRa and BLE technologies, and a robot operating system (ROS) network. The IoRT is connected to a feedback information system (FIS) distributed among multi-access edge computing (MEC) centers. Furthermore, we present SAR-IoCA, an implementation of the architecture for search and rescue (SAR) integrated into a 5G network. The FIS for this application consists of an SAR-FIS (including a path planner for UGVs considering risks detected by a LoRa H-WSN) and an ROS-FIS (for real-time monitoring and processing of information published throughout the ROS network). Moreover, we discuss lessons learned from using SAR-IoCA in a realistic exercise where three UGVs, a UAV, and responders collaborated to rescue victims from a tunnel accessible through rough terrain.
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Jacob S, Delatouche B, Péré D, Ullah Khan Z, Ledoux MJ, Crispin X, Chmielowski R. High-performance flexible thermoelectric modules based on high crystal quality printed TiS 2/hexylamine. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2021; 22:907-916. [PMID: 34867084 PMCID: PMC8635557 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2021.1978802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Printed electronics implies the use of low-cost, scalable, printing technologies to fabricate electronic devices and circuits on flexible substrates, such as paper or plastics. The development of this new electronic is currently expanding because of the emergence of the internet-of-everything. Although lot of attention has been paid to functional inks based on organic semiconductors, another class of inks is based on nanoparticles obtained from exfoliated 2D materials, such as graphene and metal sulfides. The ultimate scientific and technological challenge is to find a strategy where the exfoliated nanoparticle flakes in the inks can, after solvent evaporation, form a solid which displays performances equal to the single crystal of the 2D material. In this context, a printed layer, formed from an ink composed of nano-flakes of TiS2 intercalated with hexylamine, which displays thermoelectric properties superior to organic intercalated TiS2 single crystals, is demonstrated for the first time. The choice of the fraction of exfoliated nano-flakes appears to be a key to the forming of a new self-organized layered material by solvent evaporation. The printed layer is an efficient n-type thermoelectric material which complements the p-type printable organic semiconductors The thermoelectric power factor of the printed TiS2/hexylamine thin films reach record values of 1460 µW m-1 K-2 at 430 K, this is considerably higher than the high value of 900 µW m-1 K-2 at 300 K reported for a single crystal. A printed thermoelectric generator based on eight legs of TiS2 confirms the high-power factor values by generating a power density of 16.0 W m-2 at ΔT = 40 K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Jacob
- Department of Advanced Materials, IMRA Europe S.A.S., Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Bruno Delatouche
- Department of Advanced Materials, IMRA Europe S.A.S., Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Daniel Péré
- Department of Advanced Materials, IMRA Europe S.A.S., Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Zia Ullah Khan
- Department of Advanced Materials, IMRA Europe S.A.S., Sophia Antipolis, France
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Marc Jacques Ledoux
- Department of Advanced Materials, IMRA Europe S.A.S., Sophia Antipolis, France
- Institut de Chimie et Procédés Pour l’Energie, l’Environnement et la Santé (ICPEES), UMR 7515 CNRS/Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France
| | - Xavier Crispin
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, Sweden
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Abstract
This paper presents a bee-condition-monitoring system incorporated with a deep-learning process to detect bee swarming. This system includes easy-to-use image acquisition and various end node approaches for either on-site or cloud-based mechanisms. This system also incorporates a new smart CNN engine called Swarm-engine for detecting bees and the issue of notifications in cases of bee swarming conditions to the apiarists. First, this paper presents the authors’ proposed implementation system architecture and end node versions that put it to the test. Then, several pre-trained networks of the authors’ proposed CNN Swarm-engine were also validated to detect bee-clustering events that may lead to swarming. Finally, their accuracy and performance towards detection were evaluated using both cloud cores and embedded ARM devices on parts of the system’s different end-node implementations.
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Gutiérrez-Gómez A, Rangel V, Edwards RM, Davis JG, Aquino R, López-De la Cruz J, Mendoza-Cano O, Lopez-Guerrero M, Geng Y. A Propagation Study of LoRa P2P Links for IoT Applications: The Case of Near-Surface Measurements over Semitropical Rivers. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21206872. [PMID: 34696085 PMCID: PMC8540641 DOI: 10.3390/s21206872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Internet of Things (IoT) radio networks are becoming popular in several scenarios for short-range applications (e.g., wearables and home security) and medium-range applications (e.g., shipping container tracking and autonomous farming). They have also been proposed for water monitoring in flood warning systems. IoT communications may use long range (LoRa) radios working in the 915 MHz industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band. In this research, we study the propagation characteristics of LoRa chirp radio signals close to and over water in a tropical meadow region. We use as a case study the Colima River in Mexico. We develop a novel point-to-point IoT measurement sounding system that does not require decoding of LoRa propriety bursts and provides accurate power versus distance profiles along the riparian zone of a steeply dropping mountain river. We used this system to obtain the measurements reported in this work, which are also analyzed and modeled. The results show that the LoRa signal propagation over water exhibits a log-normal distribution. As a result of the chirp signal processing, two new experimental path loss models are presented. The path loss results show a considerable degradation of the received signal power over water within vegetation and less signal degradation at antenna heights closer to the water surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amado Gutiérrez-Gómez
- School of Engineering, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), Building Q-Valdes Vallejo, Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación de Coyoacán, CDMX, Mexico City 04510, Mexico;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52-55-40602644
| | - Víctor Rangel
- School of Engineering, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), Building Q-Valdes Vallejo, Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación de Coyoacán, CDMX, Mexico City 04510, Mexico;
| | - Robert M. Edwards
- 5G Research Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (R.M.E.); (J.G.D.); (Y.G.)
| | - John G. Davis
- 5G Research Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (R.M.E.); (J.G.D.); (Y.G.)
| | - Raúl Aquino
- School of Telematics, University of Colima, 333 University Avenue, Colima 28045, Mexico;
| | - Jesús López-De la Cruz
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Colima, km. 9, Carretera Colima-Coquimatlán, Col. Jardines del Llano, Coquimatlán, Colima 28400, Mexico; (J.L.-D.l.C.); (O.M.-C.)
| | - Oliver Mendoza-Cano
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Colima, km. 9, Carretera Colima-Coquimatlán, Col. Jardines del Llano, Coquimatlán, Colima 28400, Mexico; (J.L.-D.l.C.); (O.M.-C.)
| | - Miguel Lopez-Guerrero
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Metropolitan Autonomous University, Iztapalapa 09340, Mexico;
| | - Yu Geng
- 5G Research Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (R.M.E.); (J.G.D.); (Y.G.)
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GIS-Based Forest Fire Susceptibility Zonation with IoT Sensor Network Support, Case Study-Nature Park Golija, Serbia. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21196520. [PMID: 34640837 PMCID: PMC8512204 DOI: 10.3390/s21196520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The territory of the Republic of Serbia is vulnerable to various natural disasters, among which forest fires stand out. In relation with climate changes, the number of forest fires in Serbia has been increasing from year to year. Protected natural areas are especially endangered by wildfires. For Nature Park Golija, as the second largest in Serbia, with an area of 75,183 ha, and with MaB Reserve Golija-Studenica on part of its territory (53,804 ha), more attention should be paid in terms of forest fire mitigation. GIS and multi-criteria decision analysis are indispensable when it comes to spatial analysis for the purpose of natural disaster risk management. Index-based and fuzzy AHP methods were used, together with TOPSIS method for forest fire susceptibility zonation. Very high and high forest fire susceptibility zone were recorded on 26.85% (Forest Fire Susceptibility Index) and 25.75% (fuzzy AHP). The additional support for forest fire prevention is realized through an additional Internet of Thing (IoT)-based sensor network that enables the continuous collection of local meteorological and environmental data, which enables low-cost and reliable real-time fire risk assessment and detection and the improved long-term and short-term forest fire susceptibility assessment. Obtained results can be applied for adequate forest fire risk management, improvement of the monitoring, and early warning systems in the Republic of Serbia, but are also important for relevant authorities at national, regional, and local level, which will be able to coordinate and intervene in a case of emergency events.
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Casals L, Gomez C, Vidal R. The SF12 Well in LoRaWAN: Problem and End-Device-Based Solutions. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21196478. [PMID: 34640804 PMCID: PMC8512894 DOI: 10.3390/s21196478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
LoRaWAN has become a popular technology for the Internet of Things (IoT) device connectivity. One of the expected properties of LoRaWAN is high network scalability. However, LoRaWAN network performance may be compromised when even a relatively small number of devices use link-layer reliability. After failed frame delivery, such devices typically tend to reduce their physical layer bit rate by increasing their spreading factor (SF). This reaction increases channel utilization, which may further degrade network performance, even into congestion collapse. When this problem arises, all the devices performing reliable frame transmission end up using SF12 (i.e., the highest SF in LoRaWAN). In this paper, we identify and characterize the described network condition, which we call the SF12 Well, in a range of scenarios and by means of extensive simulations. The results show that by using alternative SF-management techniques it is possible to avoid the problem, while achieving a packet delivery ratio increase of up to a factor of 4.7.
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Maudet S, Andrieux G, Chevillon R, Diouris JF. Refined Node Energy Consumption Modeling in a LoRaWAN Network. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21196398. [PMID: 34640719 PMCID: PMC8512702 DOI: 10.3390/s21196398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
LPWAN technologies such as LoRa are widely used for the deployment of IoT applications, in particular for use cases requiring wide coverage and low energy consumption. To minimize the maintenance cost, which can become significant when the number of sensors deployed is large, it is essential to optimize the lifetime of nodes, which remains an important research topic. For this reason, it is necessary that it is based on a fine energy consumption model. Unfortunately, many existing consumption models do not take into account the specifications of the LoRaWAN protocol. In this paper, a refined energy consumption model based on in-situ measurements is provided for a LoRaWAN node. This improved model takes into account the number of nodes in the network, the collision probability that depends on the density of sensors, and the number of retransmissions. Results show the influence of the number of nodes in a LoRaWAN network on the energy consumption of a node and demonstrate that the number of sensors that can be integrated into a LoRaWAN network is limited due to the probability of collision.
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45
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Improving the Convergence Period of Adaptive Data Rate in a Long Range Wide Area Network for the Internet of Things Devices. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en14185614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the most efficient technologies and is widely adopted for the Internet of Things (IoT) applications. The IoT consists of massive End Devices (EDs) deployed over large geographical areas, forming a large environment. LoRaWAN uses an Adaptive Data Rate (ADR), targeting static EDs. However, the ADR is affected when the channel conditions between ED and Gateway (GW) are unstable due to shadowing, fading, and mobility. Such a condition causes massive packet loss, which increases the convergence time of the ADR. Therefore, we address the convergence time issue and propose a novel ADR at the network side to lower packet losses. The proposed ADR is evaluated through extensive simulation. The results show an enhanced convergence time compared to the state-of-the-art ADR method by reducing the packet losses and retransmission under dynamic mobile LoRaWAN network.
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46
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A Review of Monitoring Technologies for Solar PV Systems Using Data Processing Modules and Transmission Protocols: Progress, Challenges and Prospects. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13158120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the prominent sustainable energy sources which shares a greater percentage of the energy generated from renewable resources. As the need for solar energy has risen tremendously in the last few decades, monitoring technologies have received considerable attention in relation to performance enhancement. Recently, the solar PV monitoring system has been integrated with a wireless platform that comprises data acquisition from various sensors and nodes through wireless data transmission. However, several issues could affect the performance of solar PV monitoring, such as large data management, signal interference, long-range data transmission, and security. Therefore, this paper comprehensively reviews the progress of several solar PV-based monitoring technologies focusing on various data processing modules and data transmission protocols. Each module and transmission protocol-based monitoring technology is investigated with regard to type, design, implementations, specifications, and limitations. The critical discussion and analysis are carried out with respect to configurations, parameters monitored, software, platform, achievements, and suggestions. Moreover, various key issues and challenges are explored to identify the existing research gaps. Finally, this review delivers selective proposals for future research works. All the highlighted insights of this review will hopefully lead to increased efforts toward the enhancement of the monitoring technologies in future sustainable solar PV applications.
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IoT-Based Sanitizer Station Network: A Facilities Management Case Study on Monitoring Hand Sanitizer Dispenser Usage. SMART CITIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/smartcities4030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Maintaining hand hygiene has been an essential preventive measure for reducing disease transmission in public facilities, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The large number of sanitizer stations deployed within public facilities, such as on university campuses, brings challenges for effective facility management. This paper proposes an IoT sensor network for tracking sanitizer usage in public facilities and supporting facility management using a data-driven approach. Specifically, the system integrates low-cost wireless sensors, LoRaWAN, and cloud-based computing techniques to realize data capture, communication, and analysis. The proposed approach was validated through field experiments in a large building on a university campus to assess the network signal coverage and effectiveness of sensor operation for facility monitoring. The results show that a LoRaWAN created from a single gateway can successfully connect to sensors distributed throughout the entire building, with the sensor nodes recording and transmitting events across the network for further analysis. Overall, this paper demonstrates the potential of leveraging the IoT-based Sanitizer Station Network to track public health mitigation methods in a large facility, which ultimately contributes to reducing the burden of maintaining public health during and post-pandemic.
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A LoRa-Based Mesh Network for Peer-to-Peer Long-Range Communication. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21134314. [PMID: 34202554 PMCID: PMC8272137 DOI: 10.3390/s21134314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
LoRa is a long-range and low-power radio technology largely employed in Internet of Things (IoT) scenarios. It defines the lower physical layer while other protocols, such as LoRaWAN, define the upper layers of the network. A LoRaWAN network assumes a star topology where each of the nodes communicates with multiple gateways which, in turn, forward the collected data to a network server. The main LoRaWAN characteristic is the central role of the gateways; however, in some application scenarios, a much lighter protocol stack, relying only on node capabilities and without the presence of gateways, can be more suitable. In this paper, we present a preliminary study for realizing a LoRa-based mesh network, not relying on LoRaWAN, that implements a peer-to-peer communication between nodes, without the use of gateways, and extends node reachability through multi-hop communication. To validate our investigations, we present a hardware/software prototype based on low-power-consumption devices, and we preliminarily assess the proposed solution.
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Hertweck P, Hellmund T, Moßgraber J. OPAL-The Toolbox for the Integration and Analysis of IoT in a Semantically Annotated Way. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21124002. [PMID: 34200575 PMCID: PMC8229132 DOI: 10.3390/s21124002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications are being used more and more frequently. Data collected by various sensors can be used to provide innovative digital services supporting increasing efficiency or cost reduction. The implementation of such applications requires the integration and analysis of heterogeneous data coming from a broad variety of sensors. To support these steps, this paper introduces OPAL, a software toolbox consolidating several software components for the semantically annotated integration and analysis of IoT-data. Data storage is realized in a standardized and INSPIRE-compliant way utilizing the SensorThings API. Supporting a broad variety of use cases, OPAL provides several import adapters to access data sources with various protocols (e.g., the OPC UA protocol, which is often used in industrial environments). In addition, a unified management and execution environment, called PERMA, is introduced to allow the programming language independent integration of algorithms.
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50
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Asaamoning G, Mendes P, Rosário D, Cerqueira E. Drone Swarms as Networked Control Systems by Integration of Networking and Computing. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21082642. [PMID: 33918696 PMCID: PMC8068910 DOI: 10.3390/s21082642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The study of multi-agent systems such as drone swarms has been intensified due to their cooperative behavior. Nonetheless, automating the control of a swarm is challenging as each drone operates under fluctuating wireless, networking and environment constraints. To tackle these challenges, we consider drone swarms as Networked Control Systems (NCS), where the control of the overall system is done enclosed within a wireless communication network. This is based on a tight interconnection between the networking and computational systems, aiming to efficiently support the basic control functionality, namely data collection and exchanging, decision-making, and the distribution of actuation commands. Based on a literature analysis, we do not find revision papers about design of drone swarms as NCS. In this review, we introduce an overview of how to develop self-organized drone swarms as NCS via the integration of a networking system and a computational system. In this sense, we describe the properties of the proposed components of a drone swarm as an NCS in terms of networking and computational systems. We also analyze their integration to increase the performance of a drone swarm. Finally, we identify a potential design choice, and a set of open research challenges for the integration of network and computing in a drone swarm as an NCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godwin Asaamoning
- COPELABS, Universidade Lusofóna, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
- Bolgatanga Technical University, Sumbrungu UB-0964-8505, Ghana
- Correspondence:
| | - Paulo Mendes
- School of Communication, Architecture, Arts and Information Technologies, Universidade Lusofóna, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Airbus Central Research and Technology, Willy-Messerschmitt-Str 1, Taufkirchen, 82024 Munich, Germany
| | - Denis Rosário
- Computer Science Faculty, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, Brazil; (D.R.); (E.C.)
| | - Eduardo Cerqueira
- Computer Science Faculty, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, Brazil; (D.R.); (E.C.)
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