Status of Underutilised Crops in South Africa: Opportunities for Developing Research Capacity

Phytochemical and bioactive potentials of African Annonaceae species

This review aims to gather available information on the medicinal, nutritional, and bioactive profiles of Annonaceae species in the African continent, sponsoring their use worldwide and mainly in African communities, where access to food and medicines for basic health care is scarce. >60 medicinal taxa were compiled, belonging to 22 genera, namely Annickia, Annona, Anonidium, Artabotrys, Cleistochlamys, Cleistopholis, Dennettia, Duguetia, Greenwayodendron, Hexalobus, Isolona, Lettowianthus, Monanthotaxis, Monodora, Neostenanthera, Polyceratocarpus, Sphaerocoryne, Uvaria, Uvariastrum, Uvariodendron, Uvariopsis and Xylopia; the most diverse and economically important genera were the genera Annona, Uvaria and Xylopia with 7 species each. Annonaceae species hold a valuable nutritional profile, rich in proteins, fibers, and minerals, being also good sources of a wide range of bioactive compounds of high biological relevance. These compounds are especially important in developing countries, where most of these species are available for direct use as food and/or medicines by the most deprived populations.

Storable, neglected, and underutilized species of Southern Africa for greater agricultural resilience

The Southern African region suffers from drought and food system uncertainty with increased risks due to climate change, natural disasters, and global catastrophes. Increasing crop diversity with more appropriate and resilient crops is an effective way of increasing food system resilience. We focus on crop species that are native or naturalized to an area because of their increased resilience than those that are not naturally occurring. Additionally, crops that are easily stored are more useful in times of drought and disaster. In this systematic review, we use scientific interest in neglected and underutilized species (NUS) from Southern Africa to help define next steps toward their cultivation and development as a marketable crop. We found that although scientific interest is minimal for storable Southern African NUS, these crops are worth scaling up due to their economic and nutritional value. We outline next actionable steps and specific NUS for production in a more agrobiodiverse and resilient agriculture system.

The Association of Socio-Economic Factors and Indigenous Crops on the Food Security Status of Farming Households in KwaZulu-Natal Province

Indigenous crops have been proposed as part of a solution for household food security and sustainable farming systems. However, they have been overlooked and underutilised by households and farmers despite their potential contribution to household food security. The objective of this paper was to determine the association of socio-economic factors and indigenous crops with the household food security of farming households. About 260 farming households were selected using a simple random sampling procedure. The food security status was measured through the use of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). The Chi-square test and extended ordered probit regression model assessed the relationship of socio-economic factors and indigenous crops with household food security status. The results from the HFIAS showed that farming households were largely in the mildly and moderately food-insecure categories, with 34.2% and 36.2% of the sampled farmers found in these categories, respectively. The Chi-square test showed a statistically significant relationship between food security status and socio-economic factors. Young men and everyone were perceived to be the ones likely to consume indigenous crops. Consumption of indigenous crops was perceived to be associated with food security. The results also showed that farming experience is likely to positively contribute to the food security status of the farming households. Selling indigenous crops in a formal market is perceived to be associated with food security compared to selling in an informal market. This study concludes that consuming indigenous crops is likely associated with improved food security. Identifying an appropriate market for sales of indigenous crops is imperative. Government, extension officers, and nutritionists must conduct training workshops to encourage households to grow, market and buy indigenous crops. Government and policymakers need to include indigenous crops in the national food and nutrition security policy and create formal markets for indigenous crops.

Mainstreaming traditional fruits, vegetables and pulses for nutrition, income, and sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa: the case for Kenya and Ethiopia

This study documented existing knowledge on traditional fruits, vegetables and pulses in Kenya and Ethiopia. The aim was to identify neglected and underutilized species with high potential for food security, for their economic value and contribution to sustainable agriculture, based on a literature review and confirmation of existing data by local experts. In order of priority, the top 5 fruit species in Kenya are Tamarindus indica L., Adansonia digitata L., Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, and Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., for vegetables are Amaranthus spp., Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., Solanum spp., and Cleome gynandra L. Top fruits in Ethiopia are Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl., Cordia africana Lam., and Mimusops kummel A. DC., for vegetables are Brassica carinata A. Braun, Cucurbita pepo L., and Amaranthus spp. In both countries, priority pulse species (no ranking) are Phaseolus lunatus L., Sphenostylis stenocarpa (A.Rich.) Harms, Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC., Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet, and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Generally, these priority species are good sources of key nutrients known for their inadequate dietary intakes in sub-Saharan Africa, represent a safety net for household income, and contribute positively to ecosystem resilience in existing agricultural systems. Complete, accurate and reliable nutrient composition data are needed to raise consumer awareness about their nutritional and health benefits. Since women play a central role in traditional food systems, their empowerment, and hence resilience, increase the positive impact they can have on the households' dietary diversity. In particular, introducing small-scale processing techniques and marketing strategies could enhance their supply and consumption.

Nutritional and nutraceutical potential of rice bean (Vigna umbellata) -a legume with hidden potential

In the recent years there has been paradigm shift in global agriculture for the exploration of different underutilized crops as future potential crops. Rice bean [Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi and Ohashi] one of the lesser known pulses among Vigna species has gained attention during last decade as food and nutritional security crop. Rice bean seeds are well-balanced source of beneficial constituents such as protein, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and anti-oxidants for health benefits and combating malnourishment in human. In the present investigation, seeds of 15 diverse rice bean accessions from north-western Himalayan region were analyzed for nutrients, anti-nutrients and nutraceutical traits. Significant differences were observed among genotypes for different traits. The rice bean genotypes revealed variation for major quality traits including total carbohydrates (50.56-56.87%), crude protein content (22.56-25.97%) and lipid content (1.87 to 3.17%) with the higher proportion of linolenic acid followed by linoleic acid which are nutritionally desirable PUFAs. The genotype IC-548758 revealed higher proportion of desirable quality traits. Among protein fractions, globulins and albumins constituted major seed storage protein fraction in rice bean seeds. The wide range variation was also observed for anti-nutrients like including raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs), phenolics, tannins, trypsin inhibitor (TI), phytic acid, lipoxygenase activity and saponin content among genotypes. Insignificant correlation among iron, zinc, magnesium and manganese revealed good selection accuracy for genetic biofortification program in rice bean. In summary, the genotype IC-548757, IC-548760 and IC-548770 revealed lower proportion of anti-nutrients, whereas, the genotype IC-548759 and IC-548757 revealed higher level of free radical scavenging activity indicating nutritional and nutraceutical superiority of these genotypes. Overall, the study revealed nutritional superiority of genotype IC-548770, IC-548758 and IC-548760 with balanced proportions of nutrients and anti-nutrients. Rice bean legume has the potential to support more sustainable and resilient food and nutritional security in future. Our study highlights the potential of different rice bean genotypes as functional ingredients for future food and nutritional security programmes.

The potential repositioning of South African underutilised plants for food and nutrition security: A scoping review

Background

In South Africa (SA), there is a reported shift from the consumption of grains, pulses, fruits and vegetables by most households to the consumption of easily accessible, high-energy, ultra-processed foods. Despite their high nutritional value and affordability, indigenous, local, traditional wild and domesticated plant foods abundant in SA are still neglected and less consumed than conventional and exotic foods.

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to undertake a scoping/mapping review to evaluate the potential role of underutilised local, indigenous and traditional plant species in addressing (through improving food and nutrition security) the adverse effects of the nutrition transition, which involves increased use of ultra-processed foods, on the health and nutritional status of current households in SA as well as preventing the same adverse affecting future generations.

Design

Online databases were used to identify literature published between 2000 and 2022.A total of 88 articles, books, book chapters and literature materials were selected using the Google Scholar search engine, where literature from Sub-Saharan Africa and global that used food and nutrition security, as well as underutilised and indigenous plant species.

Results and conclusion

Evaluation of the gathered literature revealed that the "food security" concept had been measured based on the available quantity of food. In contrast, the quality of food is severely neglected. The literature indicated a strong link between the "food environment" concept, ultra-processed foods and nutrition transition. The shift, especially by the youth, from consuming underutilised plant foods to ultra-processed foods has left older people to be the only consumers of underutilised plant foods. Monotonous preparation, the unavailability of nutritive local traditional and indigenous plant foods at supermarkets and the unappealing packaging methods of such foods were some contributors to the limited or no consumption-these challenges need to be addressed.

Adopting Clean Technologies to Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in Africa: a Systematic Literature Review

The phenomenon of deforestation is occurring globally, in different types of forests, and for various reasons. In Africa, an estimated 90 per cent of the entire continent's population uses wood as a source energy for heating and cooking. However, the unsustainable harvesting of trees for heating energy not only contribute to forest and environmental degradation, but it is also a significant contributor to ill health, air pollution and climate change. Reducing the resulting adverse of ecological and health consequences will have to involve a mix of adopting renewable fuels and natural resource sustainable strategies. To date, implementing this mix has shown significant challenges, especially in developing countries. We performed this systematic literature review (SLR) to help us better understand how research is approaching this mix in Africa. We screened 792 articles resulting in a final selection of 34 studies concerned with environmental sciences. The review drew on qualitative, quantitative, and regional studies and applying a standardized method for screening, data extraction and synthesis. The findings reveal that current research focuses dominantly in four key areas: (1) renewable technology transfer, (2) climate change-adaptability, (3) climate policy, and (4) technology adoption. However, we identified a literature gap on the thin literature concerned with the impact of clean technologies to improving the environment and people's wellbeing. We propose planning a tool that would facilitate this process and suggest further research to incorporate monitoring its effectiveness.

Relevance of Neglected and Underutilized Plants for Climate Change Adaptation & Conservation Implications in Semi-arid Regions of Tanzania

Neglected and underutilized plant species (NUS) in Tanzania are maintained by socio-cultural preferences. However, a majority remains inadequately characterized and neglected by research and conservation initiatives. Over long time ago, the NUS have been part of the major component in the food systems of local communities especially in the dryland areas to overcome challenges brought about by uncertain climatic conditions. This study documents the NUS diversity and indigenous knowledge on their availability, agronomic and cultural practices in the Semi-arid zones of Tanzania to verify their economic potentials and promote their sustainable utilization for climate change adaptation as well as natural resources conservation. The study involved field plant identification, quantification and participatory rural appraisals (PRAs). The results indicate that the study regions have very rich diversity of NUS contributing significantly to the people's adaptation to drought conditions and food shortages in the areas. The NUS in the studied regions had varied uses including food and medicine. A majority of the consulted farmers in the study area indicated that the NUS utilized in the areas were either minimally cultivated on farms, freely obtained from the wild or grew as weeds in the farmlands. Despite the potentials for NUS in contributing to climate change adaptation in the areas, so far there have been no efforts geared towards their sustainable utilization and conservation. It is observed that promotion of NUS through improved packaging and marketing could contribute to the economy of the local people who have access to NUS in the area and therefore enhance resilience of semi-arid communities.

Plant and Soil Core Mycobiomes in a Two-Year Sorghum-Legume Intercropping System of Underutilized Crops in South Africa

Fungal communities form close beneficial (mutualists) or detrimental (pathogens) associations with their plant hosts. Their diversity and abundance can be affected by agricultural practices which include cropping systems such as rotations and intercropping. Despite the importance of cropping systems in increasing productivity, knowledge of the fungal mycobiome and the core inhabitants for under-utilised cereal and legume crops, particularly over a period, is still limited. The core mycobiomes in plant tissues and bulk soils of a cereal-legume intercrop were characterized over two years using high-throughput sequencing. The intercropping trial consisted of sorghum, Bambara groundnut, cowpea, dry bean, and soybean. A greater number of molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) were found in plant tissues compared to those from the soils and between year one and year two. Principal coordinate analyses revealed that fungal communities for each year were relatively distinct, particularly for the soils. The core mycobiome was dominated by a Davidiellaceae sp. (Cladosporium), Didymellaceae sp. 1 (Phoma), Didymellaceae sp. 2 (Epicoccum), Fusarium sp. 2, Unidentified (Ascomycota), and Cryptococcus MOTUs that were present in all plant tissues and soils of year one and two. Other key MOTUs were only specific to a year, substrate, or crop. Although the mycobiome of sorghum were more distinct than the cores of the legumes, there were still MOTUs dominant across all of the crops. Characterization of this baseline core across two years provides insight into those fungi that are always present in these crops, and that could be utilized in improving crop performance and productivity.

Cleome gynandra: A wonder climate-smart plant for nutritional security for millions in semi-arid areas

Spider plant (Cleome gynandra) is predominantly used as a traditional leafy vegetable throughout Africa and is considered a rich natural source of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and proteins. With the increase in malnutrition, diet related non-communicable diseases and poverty across the continent of Africa, the spider plant is a bona fide alternative healthy food crop to alleviate these challenges. Spider plant is an erect annual herb that could grow up to 150 cm tall, strongly branched, with a long taproot and few secondary roots. It is commonly consumed in resource-poor communities especially during times of major food scarcity. It is a drought-tolerant and resilient annual vegetable crop capable of growing well in a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions. Despite the potential benefits and wide adaptability, progressive attempts towards the development of C. gynandra as a crop have been impeded by issues like low investment in research and development resulting in poor seed quality, relatively low yields and susceptibility to pests and diseases. In this paper, we reviewed the research that has been done regarding its morphology, growing conditions, production and utilisation (i.e., nutrition). The current review highlighted the status of the science in advancing the domestication of C. gynandra as a potential power crop for several African countries. The review concluded that with the advancement of modern biotechnology techniques and genome sequencing, there is a compelling case for investment and development in C. gynandra as a candidate for managing micronutrient deficiencies during the post-pandemic era. Finally, the existing knowledge gaps (e.g., breeding) that necessitate explorations were identified and recommendations that could enhance its development and potential commercialisation were made.

Prospects and potentials of underutilized leafy Amaranths as vegetable use for health-promotion

Climate change causes environmental variation worldwide, which is one of the most serious threats to global food security. In addition, more than 2 billion people in the world are reported to suffer from serious malnutrition, referred to as 'hidden hunger.' Dependence on only a few crops could lead to the loss of genetic diversity and high fragility of crop breeding in systems adapting to global scale climate change. The exploitation of underutilized species and genetic resources, referred to as orphan crops, could be a useful approach for resolving the issue of adaptability to environmental alteration, biodiversity preservation, and improvement of nutrient quality and quantity to ensure food security. Moreover, the use of these alternative crops will help to increase the human health benefits and the income of farmers in developing countries. In this review, we highlight the potential of orphan crops, especially amaranths, for use as vegetables and health-promoting nutritional components. This review highlights promising diversified sources of amaranth germplasms, their tolerance to abiotic stresses, and their nutritional, phytochemical, and antioxidant values for vegetable purposes. Betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins), unique antioxidant components in amaranth vegetables, are also highlighted regarding their chemodiversity across amaranth germplasms and their stability and degradation. In addition, we discuss the physiological functions, antioxidant, antilipidemic, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities, as well as the biosynthesis pathway, molecular, biochemical, genetics, and genomic mechanisms of betalains in detail.

Diversity and Diversification: Ecosystem Services Derived From Underutilized Crops and Their Co-benefits for Sustainable Agricultural Landscapes and Resilient Food Systems in Africa

There are growing calls to adopt more sustainable forms of agriculture that balance the need to increase production with environmental, human health, and wellbeing concerns. Part of this conversation has included a debate on promoting and mainstreaming neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS) because they represent a more ecologically friendly type of agriculture. We conducted a systematic review to determine the ecosystem services derived from NUS and assess their potential to promote functional ecological diversity, food and nutritional security, and transition to more equitable, inclusive, sustainable and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems in Africa. Our literature search yielded 35 articles for further analysis. The review showed that NUS provide various provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services and several environmental and health co-benefits, dietary diversity, income, sustainable livelihood outcomes, and economic empowerment, especially for women. Importantly, NUS address the three pillars of sustainable development-ecological, social, and economic. Thus, NUS may provide a sustainable, fit-for-purpose transformative ecosystem-based adaptation solution for Africa to transition to more sustainable, healthy, equitable, and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems.

Dietary and agricultural adaptations to drought among smallholder farmers in South Africa: A qualitative study

Building resilience to environmental change is an integral part of long-term climate adaptation planning and local policy. There is an increased understanding of the impact of climate change on global crop production however, little focus has been given to local adaptation pathways and rural smallholder community responses, especially regarding food security. It is becoming increasingly evident that local level decision-making plays a vital role in reducing vulnerability to environmental change. This research aimed to qualitatively investigate coping and adaptive strategies adopted by smallholder farming households to respond to the impacts of drought in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Focus group discussions (n = 7) consisting of 5-9 participants and individual interviews (n = 9) using pre-tested topic guides, involving a total of 57 adults were conducted in rural areas of drought-affected districts: Msinga, Richmond and Umbumbulu of KwaZulu-Natal, in July 2018. The data were analysed using thematic analysis in NVivo 12. Thematic analysis identified three principal themes: 1. Perceived effects of droughts on the local food system and diets; 2. Current coping strategies; and 3. Enablers for successful adaptation. All sites reported a change in food consumption habits, with the majority perceiving drought to be the main driver behind a shift from vegetable-based to starch-based diets and decreased animal source food consumption. Only short-term coping strategies were implemented across the study sites. However, knowledge of long-term adaptation strategies existed but was unattainable to most respondents. Recommendations of perceived context-specific long-term adaptation strategies that could be used at a local scale were communicated by the respondents. However, they would need external help to actualize them. A need exists to support smallholder communities' short-term response methods to drought to achieve more holistic resilience and successful adaptation. Short-term adaptation strategies, if implemented alone, often have significant trade-offs with longer-term adaptation and building resilience. This study highlights the need for targeted, contextualised policy solutions to improve smallholder productivity during drought through a strategic combination of both short- and longer-term adaptation measures, i.e. short-term adaptation should be guided by a long-term adaptation strategy. Proper planning, including the use of climate scenarios combined with information on nutritional status, is needed to develop context-specific and transformative adaptation strategies. These strategies should aim to strengthen resilience at a local level and should be included as policy recommendations.

Orphan Crops: A Best Fit for Dietary Enrichment and Diversification in Highly Deteriorated Marginal Environments

Orphan crops are indigenous and invariably grown by small and marginal farmers under subsistence farming systems. These crops, which are common and widely accepted by local farmers, are highly rich in nutritional profile, good for medicinal purposes, and well adapted to suboptimal growing conditions. However, these crops have suffered neglect and abandonment from the scientific community because of very low or no investments in research and genetic improvement. A plausible reason for this is that these crops are not traded internationally at a rate comparable to that of the major food crops such as wheat, rice, and maize. Furthermore, marginal environments have poor soils and are characterized by extreme weather conditions such as heat, erratic rainfall, water deficit, and soil and water salinity, among others. With more frequent extreme climatic events and continued land degradation, orphan crops are beginning to receive renewed attention as alternative crops for dietary diversification in marginal environments and, by extension, across the globe. Increased awareness of good health is also a major contributor to the revived attention accorded to orphan crops. Thus, the introduction, evaluation, and adaptation of outstanding varieties of orphan crops for dietary diversification will contribute not only to sustained food production but also to improved nutrition in marginal environments. In this review article, the concept of orphan crops vis-à-vis marginality and food and nutritional security is defined for a few orphan crops. We also examined recent advances in research involving orphan crops and the potential of these crops for dietary diversification within the context of harsh marginal environments. Recent advances in genomics coupled with molecular breeding will play a pivotal role in improving the genetic potential of orphan crops and help in developing sustainable food systems. We concluded by presenting a potential roadmap to future research engagement and a policy framework with recommendations aimed at facilitating and enhancing the adoption and sustainable production of orphan crops under agriculturally marginal conditions.

Neglected and Underutilised Crops: A Systematic Review of Their Potential as Food and Herbal Medicinal Crops in South Africa

The African continent harbours many native species with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential. This study reviewed underutilised crops in South Africa to determine their potential as food and herbal medicinal crops. Over 5,000 species have been identified and earmarked for their medical attributes in formal and informal setups. Researchers, plant breeders and policymakers have mostly ignored the development potential of these crops. Consequently, their value chains are poorly developed. In South Africa, there is a wide range of neglected and underutilised crops, which were historically popular and used by communities; however, over the years, they have lost their status within farming systems and been relegated to the status of neglected and underutilised. Recently, driven by the need to transition to more sustainable and resilient food systems, there has been renewed interest in their potential as food and herbal medicinal crops to establish new value chains that include vulnerable groups. They are now gaining global attention, and their conservation and sustainable utilisation are now being prioritized. The review confirmed that several of these crops possess nutraceutical and pharmaceutical properties, highlighting their potential for development as food and herbal medicines. However, current production levels are too low to meet the requirements for industrial development; research and development should focus on all aspects of their value chain, from crop improvement to utilisation. A transdisciplinary approach involving a wide range of actors is needed to develop the identified neglected and underutilised crops' potential as food and herbal medicinal crops and support the development of new and inclusive value chains.

Unlocking the inherent potential of plant genetic resources: food security and climate adaptation strategy in Fiji and the Pacific

Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are the center of origin and diversity for several root, fruit and nut crops, which are indispensable for food security, rural livelihoods, and cultural identity of local communities. However, declining genetic diversity of traditional food crops and high vulnerability to climate change are major impediments for maintaining agricultural productivity. Limited initiatives to achieve food self-sufficiency and utilization of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) for enhancing resilience of agro-ecosystems are other serious constraints. This review focuses on the visible and anticipated impacts of climate ge, on major food and tree crops in agriculture and agroforestry systems in the PICs. We argue that crop improvement through plant breeding is a viable strategy to enhance food security and climatic resilience in the region. The exploitation of adaptive traits: abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, yield and nutritional efficiency, is imperative in a world threatened by climatic extremes. However, the insular constraints of Fiji and other small PICs are major limitations for the utilization of PGR through high throughput techniques which are also cost prohibitive. Crop Improvement programs should instead focus on the identification, conservation, documentation and dissemination of information on unique landraces, community seed banks, introduction of new resistant genotypes, and sustaining and enhancing allelic diversity.

Evaluation of Land Suitability Methods with Reference to Neglected and Underutilised Crop Species: A Scoping Review

In agriculture, land use and land classification address questions such as "where", "why" and "when" a particular crop is grown within a particular agroecology. To date, there are several land suitability analysis (LSA) methods, but there is no consensus on the best method for crop suitability analysis. We conducted a scoping review to evaluate methodological strategies for LSA. Secondary to this, we assessed which of these would be suitable for neglected and underutilised crop species (NUS). The review classified LSA methods reported in articles as traditional (26.6%) and modern (63.4%). Modern approaches, including multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods such as analytical hierarchy process (AHP) (14.9%) and fuzzy methods (12.9%); crop simulation models (9.9%) and machine learning related methods (25.7%) are gaining popularity over traditional methods. The MCDM methods, namely AHP and fuzzy, are commonly applied to LSA while crop models and machine learning related methods are gaining popularity. A total of 67 parameters from climatic, hydrology, soil, socio-economic and landscape properties are essential in LSA. Unavailability and the inclusion of categorical datasets from social sources is a challenge. Using big data and Internet of Things (IoT) improves the accuracy and reliability of LSA methods. The review expects to provide researchers and decision-makers with the most robust methods and standard parameters required in developing LSA for NUS. Qualitative and quantitative approaches must be integrated into unique hybrid land evaluation systems to improve LSA.

Evaluation of Factors Influencing the Inclusion of Indigenous Plants for Food Security among Rural Households in the North West Province of South Africa

Underutilised indigenous plants can support and strengthen the existing food system, as they are considered as socio-economically and environmentally appropriate. These plants generally adapt to marginal conditions, which is essential for a resilient agriculture and sustainable food systems. The current study relied on food security and indigenous plants data collected from some selected rural households from the North West Province of South Africa. The utilised data were collected through a multi-stage sampling technique with the aid of a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire, while descriptive methods Foster–Greer–Thorbecke (FGT) and binary logistic regression were used for data analysis. The models produced a good fit for the data, and the computed F-value was statistically significant (p < 0.01). The study examined socio-economic and food security status based on the knowledge and the perception of indigenous plants by the households. The incidence of food insecurity (θ0) was 0.4060, indicating that 40.6% of the participants were food insecure while 59.4% were food secured. Binary logistic regression results indicate that factors such as age, gender, educational attainment, inclusion of indigenous plants in diet, food expenditure, and access in the study area impacted results. It was also evident that the participants had considerable knowledge of indigenous plants. However, these indigenous plants were not cultivated or included in the diet by the majority of the participants. The formulation of appropriate holistic policies that support the incorporation of the indigenous plants into the food system is recommended.

Environmental Impact of Food Packaging Materials: A Review of Contemporary Development from Conventional Plastics to Polylactic Acid Based Materials

Plastics have remained the material of choice, and after serving their intended purpose, a large proportion ends up in the environment where they persist for centuries. The packaging industry is the largest and growing consumer of synthetic plastics derived from fossil fuels. Food packaging plastics account for the bulk of plastic waste that are polluting the environment. Additionally, given the fact that petroleum reserves are finite and facing depletion, there is a need for the development of alternative materials that can serve the same purpose as conventional plastics. This paper reviews the function of packaging materials and highlights the future potential of the adoption of green materials. Biopolymers have emerged as promising green materials although they still have very low market uptake. Polylactic acid (PLA) has emerged as the most favoured bioplastic. However, it is limited by its high cost and some performance drawbacks. Blending with agricultural waste and natural fillers can result in green composites at low cost, low greenhouse gas emissions, and with improved performance for food packaging applications. The continent of Africa is proposed as a rich source of fibres and fillers that can be sustainably exploited to fabricate green composites in a bid to achieve a circular economy.

Exploring the Resource Value of Transvaal Red Milk Wood (Mimusops zeyheri) for Food Security and Sustainability: An Appraisal of Existing Evidence

Many African countries are endowed with rich biodiversity with enormous nutritional and economic prospects, but the majority of these resources are not fully harnessed. Exploring these neglected resources, for example, the Transvaal red milkwood tree [(Mimusops zeyheri) Sond. family: Sapotaceae] is of paramount importance for food and nutritional security as well as economic prosperity. This review provides a critical appraisal of the nutritional and health benefits as well as the economic potential of Mimusops zeyheri. The plant is known for its diverse uses among rural communities. In folk medicine, the decoction from the bark and leaves of Mimusops zeyheri are used for treating wounds and ulcers, while the root is used as an infusion taken to treat candidiasis and other health issues. The nutritional profile of the fruit tree is similar to popular exotic fruits and richer in vitamin C when compared to guava and orange. Mimusops zeyheri is a rich source of vitamins, protein, and fatty acids. Based on the rich chemical pool, especially in the fruit and seeds, it has the potential to provide an accessible, readily available, and affordable enriched functional food with valuable health benefits. However, the successful exploration of Mimusopszeyheri for food security and sustainability requires multidisciplinary research. This will help achieve the envisaged food-nutrition security and poverty alleviation potential of the plant, especially among local communities.

Optimizing Traditional Cropping Systems Under Climate Change: A Case of Maize Landraces and Bambara Groundnut

Traditional crop species are reported to be drought-tolerant and nutrient-dense with potential to contribute to sustainable food and nutrition security within marginal production systems under climate change. We hypothesized that intercropping maize landraces (Zea mays L.) with bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.), together with optimum management strategies, can improve productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) under climate change. Using an ex-ante approach, we assessed climate change impacts and agronomic management options, such as plant ratios, and plant sequences, on yield and WUE of intercropped maize landrace and bambara groundnut. The Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) model was applied over four time periods; namely past (1961-1991), present (1995-2025), mid-century (2030-2060) and late-century (2065-2095), obtained from six GCMs. Across timescales, there were no significant differences with mean annual rainfall, but late century projections of mean annual temperature and reference crop evaporation (ET0) showed average increases of 3.5°C and 155mm, respectively. By late century and relative to the present, the projected changes in yield and WUE were -10 and -15% and 5 and 7% for intercropped bambara groundnut and maize landrace, respectively. Regardless of timescale, increasing plant population improved yield and WUE of intercropped bambara groundnut. Asynchronous planting increased yield and WUE for both maize landrace (5 and 14%) and bambara groundnut (35 and 47%, respectively). Most significant improvements were observed when either crop was planted 2-3 months apart. To reduce yield gaps in intercrop systems, low-cost management options like changing plant populations and sequential cropping can increase yield and WUE under projected climate change. To further increase sustainability, there is a need to expand the research to consider other management strategies such as use of other traditional crop species, fertilization, rainwater harvesting and soil conservation techniques.

A Dual Strategy of Breeding for Drought Tolerance and Introducing Drought-Tolerant, Underutilized Crops into Production Systems to Enhance Their Resilience to Water Deficiency

Water scarcity is the primary constraint on crop productivity in arid and semiarid tropical areas suffering from climate alterations; in accordance, agricultural systems have to be optimized. Several concepts and strategies should be considered to improve crop yield and quality, particularly in vulnerable regions where such environmental changes cause a risk of food insecurity. In this work, we review two strategies aiming to increase drought stress tolerance: (i) the use of natural genes that have evolved over time and are preserved in crop wild relatives and landraces for drought tolerance breeding using conventional and molecular methods and (ii) exploiting the reservoir of neglected and underutilized species to identify those that are known to be more drought-tolerant than conventional staple crops while possessing other desired agronomic and nutritive characteristics, as well as introducing them into existing cropping systems to make them more resilient to water deficiency conditions. In the past, the existence of drought tolerance genes in crop wild relatives and landraces was either unknown or difficult to exploit using traditional breeding techniques to secure potential long-term solutions. Today, with the advances in genomics and phenomics, there are a number of new tools available that facilitate the discovery of drought resistance genes in crop wild relatives and landraces and their relatively easy transfer into advanced breeding lines, thus accelerating breeding progress and creating resilient varieties that can withstand prolonged drought periods. Among those tools are marker-assisted selection (MAS), genomic selection (GS), and targeted gene editing (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) technology). The integration of these two major strategies, the advances in conventional and molecular breeding for the drought tolerance of conventional staple crops, and the introduction of drought-tolerant neglected and underutilized species into existing production systems has the potential to enhance the resilience of agricultural production under conditions of water scarcity.

Nutritional and Physicochemical Characterization of Strychnos madagascariensis Poir (Black Monkey Orange) Seeds as a Potential Food Source

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir is an underutilized fruit that is considered a valuable food during droughts and famine. The aim of this research was to characterize the nutritional composition and the flour functional properties, for the use as a potential food source. Seed flour was analysed using a standard enzymatic assay for sugars, acid/neutral detergent analysis for fibre, ether extraction for fat and HPLC for strychnine. Results showed that the seeds contained 41% reducing sugars and 53% fibre. The mineral composition, determined using microwave-assisted acid digestion and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), showed that the seeds contained high quantities of iron (15.78 mg/100 g) and manganese (9.86 mg/100 g). The flour water absorption index (1.37 g/g) was substantially higher than that of wheat, brown rice and tapioca flours and the oil absorption index showed similarities to the reference flours (1.09 g/g). The flour peak (37,788 RVU) and final viscosities (62,928 RVU) were significantly (p < 0.001) higher than the reference flours. This study was the first to quantify the strychnine content (0.08%) in the seeds. Results suggest that the seeds have good potential for food product development; however, further processing is essential to ensure safety for consumption.

Evaluation of Nutritional and Antinutritional Properties of African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) Harms.) Seeds

African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) Harms) is an annual legume with the capacity to produce bean seeds in a pod and produce tubers with varying seed patterns and colors. It is suggested to have the potential to significantly boost food security in sub-Saharan Africa due to its considerable nutritional qualities but still yet underutilized. Many farmers show limited interest in its production owing to limited knowledge of its nutritional profile, income generation capacity for small-holder farmers’, processing, and other related utilization concerns. This study evaluated the proximate and antinutrient composition of processed and unprocessed seeds of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) Harms.). Seeds were harvested from the experimental research field consisting of 50 accessions at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. They were divided into two portions; the first was processed by oven drying at 60°C for 24 hours and the second was left raw. There were significant differences (P<0.05) in the levels of proximate and antinutrient in the forms in which the samples were analyzed. TSs104 had the highest protein content of 25.08%, while the lowest was TSs68 (20.50%). However, in the unprocessed seed, protein content ranged between 24.93% (TSs38) and 19.13% (TSs11). Both processed and unprocessed seeds had high carbohydrate contents. In processed seeds, TSs9 (62.93%) had the highest percentage and TSs1 (29.64%) recorded the lowest. In unprocessed seed, the percentage ranged between 67.36% (TSs4) and 54.23% (TSs38). The observed variation may suggest possible suitability of seed for various end-use products and targeted breeding programs for crop improvements. In sub-Saharan Africa, this lesser-known legume could be adapted as a promising food crop in combating protein-energy malnutrition.

A Review of Indigenous Food Crops in Africa and the Implications for more Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems

Indigenous and traditional foods crops (ITFCs) have multiple uses within society, and most notably have an important role to play in the attempt to diversify the food in order to enhance food and nutrition security. However, research suggests that the benefits and value of indigenous foods within the South African and the African context have not been fully understood and synthesized. Their potential value to the African food system could be enhanced if their benefits were explored more comprehensively. This synthesis presents a literature review relating to underutilized indigenous crop species and foods in Africa. It organizes the findings into four main contributions, nutritional, environmental, economic, and social-cultural, in line with key themes of a sustainable food system framework. It also goes on to unpack the benefits and challenges associated with ITFCs under these themes. A major obstacle is that people are not valuing indigenous foods and the potential benefit that can be derived from using them is thus neglected. Furthermore, knowledge is being lost from one generation to the next, with potentially dire implications for long-term sustainable food security. The results show the need to recognize and enable indigenous foods as a key resource in ensuring healthy food systems in the African continent.

Effects of Cultivated Area on Smallholder Farm Profits and Food Security in Rural Communities of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa

As rural poverty deepens over much of Sub-Saharan Africa, smallholder transformation has become more urgent than ever before. A majority of rural people derive their livelihoods from agriculture, hence the urgent need for transforming the sector. The South African government launched a comprehensive land reform programme at the dawn of democracy in the country on the assumption that constraints on land size would be eliminated to make room for a more inclusive agricultural economy. The present study sought to assess how cultivated area affects food security and the profits of maize and cabbage farmers. The purposive sampling technique was used for the selection of study sites, from which 158 irrigators and homestead gardeners were selected. The data were then subjected to analysis by defining a maximum likelihood estimator that combines the seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) and one-way error correction model, to determine the factors influencing food security and farm profits. The model revealed diverse relationships, suggesting that location, farm type and income were important variables in explaining food security. The area under cultivation was found to influence profits for both crops. Policies in favour of technology adoption, market access and input use would greatly incentivize farmers to cultivate larger plots of land.

A Land Evaluation Framework for Agricultural Diversification

Shortlisting ecologically adaptable plant species can be a starting point for agricultural diversification projects. We propose a rapid assessment framework based on an ecological model that can accelerate the evaluation of options for sustainable crop diversification. To test the new model, expert-defined and widely available crop requirement data were combined with more than 100,000 occurrence data for 40 crops of different types (cereals, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and tubers/roots). Soil pH, texture, and depth to bedrock data were obtained and harmonised based on the optimal rooting depths of each crop. Global baseline temperature and rainfall data were used to extract averages at each location. To evaluate the ability of the method to capture intraspecies variation, a test was performed using more than 1000 accession records of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) as an exemplar underutilised crop. Results showed that a suitability index based on soil pH and an index that combines the thermal suitability moderated by the soil pH, texture, and depth suitability have the potential to predict crop adaptability. We show that the proposed method can be combined with traditional land use and crop models to evaluate diversification options for sustainable land and agrobiodiversity resources management.

Prospects of orphan crops in climate change

MAIN CONCLUSION

Orphan crops can contribute to building resilience of marginal cropping systems as a climate chnage adaptation strategy. Orphan crops play an important role in global food and nutrition security, and may have potential to contribute to sustainable food systems under climate change. Owing to reports of their potential under water scarcity, there is an argument to promote them to sustainably address challenges such as increasing drought and water scarcity, food and nutrition insecurity, environmental degradation, and employment creation under climate change. We conducted a scoping review using online databases to identify the prospects of orphan crops to contribute to (1) sustainable and healthy food systems, (2) genetic resources for future crop improvement, and (3) improving agricultural sustainability under climate change. The review found that, as a product of generations of landrace agriculture, several orphan crops are nutritious, resilient, and adapted to niche marginal agricultural environments. Including such orphan crops in the existing monocultural cropping systems could support more sustainable, nutritious, and diverse food systems in marginalised agricultural environments. Orphan crops also represent a broad gene pool for future crop improvement. The reduction in arable land due to climate change offers opportunities to expand the area under their production. Their suitability to marginal niche and low-input environments offers opportunities for low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from an agro-ecosystems, production, and processing perspective. This, together with their status as a sub-set of agro-biodiversity, offers opportunities to address socio-economic and environmental challenges under climate change. With research and development, and policy to support them, orphan crops could play an important role in climate-change adaptation, especially in the global south.

Mainstreaming Underutilized Indigenous and Traditional Crops into Food Systems: A South African Perspective

Business as usual or transformative change? While the global agro-industrial food system is credited with increasing food production, availability and accessibility, it is also credited with giving birth to 'new' challenges such as malnutrition, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. We reviewed the potential of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops to bring about a transformative change to South Africa's food system. South Africa has a dichotomous food system, characterized by a distinct, dominant agro-industrial, and, alternative, informal food system. This dichotomous food system has inadvertently undermined the development of smallholder producers. While the dominant agro-industrial food system has led to improvements in food supply, it has also resulted in significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic stability, especially amongst the rural poor. This challenges South Africa's ability to deliver on sustainable and healthy food systems under environmental change. The review proposes a transdisciplinary approach to mainstreaming underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system, which offers real opportunities for developing a sustainable and healthy food system, while, at the same time, achieving societal goals such as employment creation, wellbeing, and environmental sustainability. This process can be initiated by researchers translating existing evidence for informing policy-makers. Similarly, policy-makers need to acknowledge the divergence in the existing policies, and bring about policy convergence in pursuit of a food system which includes smallholder famers, and where underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are mainstreamed into the South African food system.

Developing a Roadmap for Improving Neglected and Underutilized Crops: A Case Study of South Africa

Reports of neglected and underutilized crops' (NUS) potential remain mostly anecdotal with limited and often incoherent research available to support them. This has been attributed to lack of clear research goals, limited funding directed at NUS and journal apathy toward publishing work on NUS. The latter points also explain the lack of interest from emerging and established researchers. Additionally, the NUS community's inability to articulate a roadmap for NUS' promotion may have unintentionally contributed to this. The current study is a sequel to an initial study that assessed the status of NUS in South Africa. The objective of this follow-up study was then to (i) identify priority NUS, and (ii) articulate a strategy and actionable recommendations for promoting NUS in South Africa. The study identified 13 priority NUS, categorized into cereals, legumes, root, and tuber crops and leafy vegetables based on drought and heat stress tolerance and nutritional value. It is recommended that the available limited resources should be targeted on improving these priority NUS as they offer the best prospects for success. Focus should be on developing value chains for the priority NUS. This should be underpinned by science to provide evidence-based outcomes. This would assist to attract more funding for NUS research, development and innovation in South Africa. It is envisaged that through this roadmap, NUS could be transformed from the peripheries into mainstream agriculture. This study provides a template for developing a roadmap for promoting NUS that could be transposed and replicated among the 14 other southern African states.