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Hisham Y, Seo SM, Kim S, Shim S, Hwang J, Yoo ES, Kim NW, Song CS, Jhun H, Park HY, Lee Y, Shin KC, Han SY, Seong JK, Choi YK, Kim S. COVID-19 spike polypeptide vaccine reduces the pathogenesis and viral infection in a mouse model of SARS-CoV-2. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1098461. [PMID: 36936979 PMCID: PMC10020603 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1098461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, which causes a respiratory disease called COVID-19, has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is still ongoing. Vaccination is the most important strategy to end the pandemic. Several vaccines have been approved, as evidenced by the ongoing global pandemic, but the pandemic is far from over and no fully effective vaccine is yet available. One of the most critical steps in vaccine development is the selection of appropriate antigens and their proper introduction into the immune system. Therefore, in this study, we developed and evaluated two proposed vaccines composed of single and multiple SARS-CoV-2 polypeptides derived from the spike protein, namely, vaccine A and vaccine B, respectively. The polypeptides were validated by the sera of COVID-19-vaccinated individuals and/or naturally infected COVID-19 patients to shortlist the starting pool of antigens followed by in vivo vaccination to hACE2 transgenic mice. The spike multiple polypeptide vaccine (vaccine B) was more potent to reduce the pathogenesis of organs, resulting in higher protection against the SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Hisham
- Laboratory of Cytokine Immunology, Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-Min Seo
- Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sinae Kim
- Laboratory of Cytokine Immunology, Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Saerok Shim
- Laboratory of Cytokine Immunology, Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihyeong Hwang
- Laboratory of Cytokine Immunology, Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Seon Yoo
- Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Na-Won Kim
- Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjhung Jhun
- Food Industry Infrastructure Team, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Young Park
- Research Group of Functional Food Materials, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngmin Lee
- Department of Medicine, Pusan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong-Cheol Shin
- Center for Respiratory Disease, College of Medicine, Yeungnam University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-Young Han
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Gyeongsangnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Je Kyung Seong
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology and Genomics, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, and BK21 PLUS Program for Creative Veterinary Science Research, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Korea Mouse Phenotyping Center, Interdisciplinary Program for Bioinformatics, and BioMAX Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yang-Kyu Choi
- Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- *Correspondence: Yang-Kyu Choi, ; Soohyun Kim,
| | - Soohyun Kim
- Laboratory of Cytokine Immunology, Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- *Correspondence: Yang-Kyu Choi, ; Soohyun Kim,
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Pacheco-Olvera DL, Saint Remy-Hernández S, García-Valeriano MG, Rivera-Hernández T, López-Macías C. Bioinformatic Analysis of B- and T-cell Epitopes from SARS-CoV-2 Structural Proteins and their Potential Cross-reactivity with Emerging Variants and other Human Coronaviruses. Arch Med Res 2022; 53:694-710. [PMID: 36336501 PMCID: PMC9633039 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2022.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mutations in SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) facilitate the virus' escape from the neutralizing antibodies induced by vaccines. However, the protection from hospitalization and death is not significantly diminished. Both vaccine boosters and infection improve immune responses and provide protection, suggesting that conserved and/or cross-reactive epitopes could be involved. While several important T- and B-cell epitopes have been identified, mainly in the S protein, the M and N proteins and their potential cross-reactive epitopes with other coronaviruses remain largely unexplored. AIMS To identify and map new potential B- and T-cell epitopes within the SARS-CoV-2 S, M and N proteins, as well as cross-reactive epitopes with human coronaviruses. METHODS Different bioinformatics tools were used to: i) Identify new and compile previously-reported B-and T-cell epitopes from SARS-CoV-2 S, M and N proteins; ii) Determine the mutations in S protein from VOC that affect B- and T-cell epitopes, and; iii) Identify cross-reactive epitopes with coronaviruses relevant to human health. RESULTS New, potential B- and T-cell epitopes from S, M and N proteins as well as cross-reactive epitopes with other coronaviruses were found and mapped within the proteins' structures. CONCLUSION Numerous potential B- and T-cell epitopes were found in S, M and N proteins, some of which are conserved between coronaviruses. VOCs present mutations within important epitopes in the S protein; however, a significant number of other epitopes remain unchanged. The epitopes identified here may contribute to augmenting the protective response to SARS-CoV-2 and its variants induced by infection and/or vaccination, and may also be used for the rational design of novel broad-spectrum coronavirus vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Laura Pacheco-Olvera
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Stephanie Saint Remy-Hernández
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, México
| | - María Guadalupe García-Valeriano
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Tania Rivera-Hernández
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, México; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Constantino López-Macías
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, México.
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Salod Z, Mahomed O. Mapping Potential Vaccine Candidates Predicted by VaxiJen for Different Viral Pathogens between 2017-2021-A Scoping Review. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:1785. [PMID: 36366294 PMCID: PMC9695814 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10111785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Reverse vaccinology (RV) is a promising alternative to traditional vaccinology. RV focuses on in silico methods to identify antigens or potential vaccine candidates (PVCs) from a pathogen's proteome. Researchers use VaxiJen, the most well-known RV tool, to predict PVCs for various pathogens. The purpose of this scoping review is to provide an overview of PVCs predicted by VaxiJen for different viruses between 2017 and 2021 using Arksey and O'Malley's framework and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. We used the term 'vaxijen' to search PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and ProQuest One Academic. The protocol was registered at the Open Science Framework (OSF). We identified articles on this topic, charted them, and discussed the key findings. The database searches yielded 1033 articles, of which 275 were eligible. Most studies focused on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), published between 2020 and 2021. Only a few articles (8/275; 2.9%) conducted experimental validations to confirm the predictions as vaccine candidates, with 2.2% (6/275) articles mentioning recombinant protein expression. Researchers commonly targeted parts of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein, with the frequently predicted epitopes as PVCs being major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I T cell epitopes WTAGAAAYY, RQIAPGQTG, IAIVMVTIM, and B cell epitope IAPGQTGKIADY, among others. The findings of this review are promising for the development of novel vaccines. We recommend that vaccinologists use these findings as a guide to performing experimental validation for various viruses, with SARS-CoV-2 as a priority, because better vaccines are needed, especially to stay ahead of the emergence of new variants. If successful, these vaccines could provide broader protection than traditional vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zakia Salod
- Discipline of Public Health Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4051, South Africa
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Dhanda SK, Malviya J, Gupta S. Not all T cell epitopes are equally desired: a review of in silico tools for the prediction of cytokine-inducing potential of T-cell epitopes. Brief Bioinform 2022; 23:6692551. [PMID: 36070623 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbac382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessment of protective or harmful T cell response induced by any antigenic epitope is important in designing any immunotherapeutic molecule. The understanding of cytokine induction potential also helps us to monitor antigen-specific cellular immune responses and rational vaccine design. The classical immunoinformatics tools served well for prediction of B cell and T cell epitopes. However, in the last decade, the prediction algorithms for T cell epitope inducing specific cytokines have also been developed and appreciated in the scientific community. This review summarizes the current status of such tools, their applications, background algorithms, their use in experimental setup and functionalities available in the tools/web servers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Kumar Dhanda
- Department of Oncology, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA-38015.,Center for Transdisciplinary Research, Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Science, Chennai, India
| | - Jitendra Malviya
- Department of Life Sciences and Biological Science, IES University Bhopal, India
| | - Sudheer Gupta
- NGS & Bioinformatics Division, 3B BlackBio Biotech India Ltd., 7-C, Industrial Area, Govindpura, Bhopal, India
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Araújo LPD, Dias MEC, Scodeler GC, Santos ADS, Soares LM, Corsetti PP, Padovan ACB, Silveira NJDF, de Almeida LA. Epitope identification of SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins using in silico approaches to obtain a conserved rational immunogenic peptide. IMMUNOINFORMATICS 2022; 7:100015. [PMID: 35721890 PMCID: PMC9188263 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuno.2022.100015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
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Huffman A, Ong E, Hur J, D’Mello A, Tettelin H, He Y. COVID-19 vaccine design using reverse and structural vaccinology, ontology-based literature mining and machine learning. Brief Bioinform 2022; 23:bbac190. [PMID: 35649389 PMCID: PMC9294427 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbac190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rational vaccine design, especially vaccine antigen identification and optimization, is critical to successful and efficient vaccine development against various infectious diseases including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In general, computational vaccine design includes three major stages: (i) identification and annotation of experimentally verified gold standard protective antigens through literature mining, (ii) rational vaccine design using reverse vaccinology (RV) and structural vaccinology (SV) and (iii) post-licensure vaccine success and adverse event surveillance and its usage for vaccine design. Protegen is a database of experimentally verified protective antigens, which can be used as gold standard data for rational vaccine design. RV predicts protective antigen targets primarily from genome sequence analysis. SV refines antigens through structural engineering. Recently, RV and SV approaches, with the support of various machine learning methods, have been applied to COVID-19 vaccine design. The analysis of post-licensure vaccine adverse event report data also provides valuable results in terms of vaccine safety and how vaccines should be used or paused. Ontology standardizes and incorporates heterogeneous data and knowledge in a human- and computer-interpretable manner, further supporting machine learning and vaccine design. Future directions on rational vaccine design are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Huffman
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Edison Ong
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Junguk Hur
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202, USA
| | - Adonis D’Mello
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Hervé Tettelin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Yongqun He
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
- Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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RG203KR Mutations in SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid: Assessing the Impact Using a Virus-Like Particle Model System. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0078122. [PMID: 35862952 PMCID: PMC9430728 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00781-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its origin in late 2019, the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been constantly mutating and evolving. Current studies mostly employ spike protein (S) pseudovirus systems to determine the effects of mutations on the infectivity and immunogenicity of variants.
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Yoon E, Kim D, Jeon H, Kwon Y, Jang Y, Kim S, Hwang KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 variants-Possibility of universal vaccine design: A review. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2022; 20:3533-3544. [PMID: 35765543 PMCID: PMC9221512 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.06.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Both novel and conventional vaccination strategies have been implemented worldwide since the onset of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite various medical advances in the treatment and prevention of the spread of this contagious disease, it remains a major public health threat with a high mortality rate. As several lethal SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to emerge, the development of several vaccines and medicines, each with certain advantages and disadvantages, is underway. Additionally, many modalities are at various stages of research and development or clinical trials. Here, we summarize emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, including delta, omicron, and "stealth omicron," as well as available oral drugs for COVID-19. We also discuss possible antigen candidates other than the receptor-binding domain protein for the development of a universal COVID-19 vaccine. The present review will serve as a helpful resource for future vaccine and drug development to combat COVID-19.
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Key Words
- ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- Antigen
- COVID-19
- COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019
- Coronavirus
- FDA, Food and Drug Administration
- FP, fusion peptide
- HE, hemagglutinin-esterase
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- HR1, heptad repeat 1
- HR2, heptad repeat 2
- Oral drug
- RBD, receptor binding domain
- Receptor-binding domain
- S1-CTD, S1 C-terminal domain
- S1-NTD, S1 N-terminal domain
- SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- TMPRSS2, transmembrane protease serine 2
- Universal vaccine
- mAbs, monoclonal antibodies
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunhye Yoon
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Dahyun Kim
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Hyeeun Jeon
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Yejin Kwon
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Yejin Jang
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Sulhee Kim
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
- Institute of Bioresource, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Kwang Yeon Hwang
- Division of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul 02841, South Korea
- Institute of Bioresource, Korea University, Seoul 02841, South Korea
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Caoili SEC. Prediction of Variable-Length B-Cell Epitopes for Antipeptide Paratopes Using the Program HAPTIC. Protein Pept Lett 2022; 29:328-339. [PMID: 35125075 DOI: 10.2174/0929866529666220203101808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND B-cell epitope prediction for antipeptide antibody responses enables peptide-based vaccine design and related translational applications. This entails estimating epitopeparatope binding free-energy changes from antigen sequence; but attempts to do so assuming uniform epitope length (e.g., of hexapeptide sequences, each spanning a typical paratope diameter when fully extended) have neglected empirically established variation in epitope length. OBJECTIVE This work aimed to develop a sequence-based physicochemical approach to variablelength B-cell epitope prediction for antipeptide paratopes recognizing flexibly disordered targets. METHODS Said approach was developed by analogy between epitope-paratope binding and protein folding modeled as polymer collapse, treating paratope structure implicitly. Epitope-paratope binding was thus conceptually resolved into processes of epitope compaction, collapse and contact, with epitope collapse presenting the main entropic barrier limiting epitope length among nonpolyproline sequences. The resulting algorithm was implemented as a computer program, namely the Heuristic Affinity Prediction Tool for Immune Complexes (HAPTIC), which is freely accessible via an online interface (http://badong.freeshell.org/haptic.htm). This was used in conjunction with published data on representative known peptide immunogens. RESULTS HAPTIC predicted immunodominant epitope sequences with lengths limited by penalties for both compaction and collapse, consistent with known paratope-bound structures of flexibly disordered epitopes. In most cases, the predicted association constant was greater than its experimentally determined counterpart but below the predicted upper bound for affinity maturation in vivo. CONCLUSION HAPTIC provides a physicochemically plausible means for estimating the affinity of antipeptide paratopes for sterically accessible and flexibly disordered peptidic antigen sequences by explicitly considering candidate B-cell epitopes of variable length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador E C Caoili
- Biomedical Innovations Research for Translational Health Science (BIRTHS) Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines
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Madhavan M, AlOmair LA, Ks D, Mustafa S. Exploring peptide studies related to SARS-CoV to accelerate the development of novel therapeutic and prophylactic solutions against COVID-19. J Infect Public Health 2021; 14:1106-1119. [PMID: 34280732 PMCID: PMC8253661 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2021.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in peptide research revolutionized therapeutic discoveries for various infectious diseases. In view of the ongoing threat of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is an urgent need to develop potential therapeutic options. Intense and accomplishing research is being carried out to develop broad-spectrum vaccines and treatment options for corona viruses, due to the risk of recurrent infection by the existing strains or pandemic outbreaks by new mutant strains. Developing a novel medicine is costly and time consuming, which increases the value of repurposing existing therapies. Since, SARS-CoV-2 shares significant genomic homology with SARS-CoV, we have summarized various peptides identified against SARS-CoV using in silico and molecular studies and also the peptides effective against SARS-CoV-2. Dissecting the molecular mechanisms underlying viral infection could yield fundamental insights in the discovery of new antiviral agents, targeting viral proteins or host factors. We postulate that these peptides can serve as effective components for therapeutic options against SARS-CoV-2, supporting clinical scientists globally in selectively identifying and testing the therapeutic and prophylactic agents for COVID-19 treatment. In addition, we also summarized the latest updates on peptide therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Madhavan
- Department of Biochemistry, Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
| | - Lamya A AlOmair
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Deepthi Ks
- Department of Microbiology, Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
| | - Sabeena Mustafa
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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