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Miller JA, Constantinidis C. Timescales of learning in prefrontal cortex. Nat Rev Neurosci 2024; 25:597-610. [PMID: 38937654 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-024-00836-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) in humans and other primates is critical for immediate, goal-directed behaviour and working memory, which are classically considered distinct from the cognitive and neural circuits that support long-term learning and memory. Over the past few years, a reconsideration of this textbook perspective has emerged, in that different timescales of memory-guided behaviour are in constant interaction during the pursuit of immediate goals. Here, we will first detail how neural activity related to the shortest timescales of goal-directed behaviour (which requires maintenance of current states and goals in working memory) is sculpted by long-term knowledge and learning - that is, how the past informs present behaviour. Then, we will outline how learning across different timescales (from seconds to years) drives plasticity in the primate lateral PFC, from single neuron firing rates to mesoscale neuroimaging activity patterns. Finally, we will review how, over days and months of learning, dense local and long-range connectivity patterns in PFC facilitate longer-lasting changes in population activity by changing synaptic weights and recruiting additional neural resources to inform future behaviour. Our Review sheds light on how the machinery of plasticity in PFC circuits facilitates the integration of learned experiences across time to best guide adaptive behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Miller
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christos Constantinidis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Neuroscience Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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2
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Kirstin S, Matthias G, Valetin B, Valerie S, Andrea F, Nedelina S, Claus K, Jochen R, Regula E. Cerebral blood flow and structural connectivity after working memory or physical training in paediatric cancer survivors - Exploratory findings. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2024:1-27. [PMID: 38809147 DOI: 10.1080/09602011.2024.2356294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Paediatric cancer survivors often suffer from cognitive long-term difficulties. Consequently, strengthening cognition is of major clinical relevance. This study investigated cerebral changes in relation to cognition in non-brain tumour paediatric cancer survivors after working memory or physical training compared to a control group. Thirty-four children (≥one-year post-treatment) either underwent eight weeks of working memory training (n = 10), physical training (n = 11), or a waiting period (n = 13). Cognition and MRI, including arterial spin labelling and diffusion tensor imaging, were assessed at three time points (baseline, post-training, and three-month follow-up). Results show lower cerebral blood flow immediately after working memory training (z = -2.073, p = .038) and higher structural connectivity at the three-month follow-up (z = -2.240, p = .025). No cerebral changes occurred after physical training. Short-term changes in cerebral blood flow correlated with short-term changes in cognitive flexibility (r = -.667, p = .049), while long-term changes in structural connectivity correlated with long-term changes in working memory (r = .786, p = .021). Despite the caution given when interpreting data from small samples, this study suggests a link between working memory training and neurophysiological changes. Further research is needed to validate these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Schuerch Kirstin
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Division of Neuropediatrics, Development and Rehabilitation, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Health Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Grieder Matthias
- Translational Research Center, University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Benzing Valetin
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Division of Neuropediatrics, Development and Rehabilitation, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Siegwart Valerie
- Division of Neuropediatrics, Development and Rehabilitation, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Federspiel Andrea
- Support Center for Advanced Neuroimaging (SCAN), Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Slavova Nedelina
- Support Center for Advanced Neuroimaging (SCAN), Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Kiefer Claus
- Support Center for Advanced Neuroimaging (SCAN), Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, and University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Roessler Jochen
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Everts Regula
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Division of Neuropediatrics, Development and Rehabilitation, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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3
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Khazaei S, Amin MR, Tahir M, Faghih RT. Bayesian Inference of Hidden Cognitive Performance and Arousal States in Presence of Music. IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 5:627-636. [PMID: 39184959 PMCID: PMC11342937 DOI: 10.1109/ojemb.2024.3377923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Goal: Poor arousal management may lead to reduced cognitive performance. Specifying a model and decoder to infer the cognitive arousal and performance contributes to arousal regulation via non-invasive actuators such as music. Methods: We employ a Bayesian filtering approach within an expectation-maximization framework to track the hidden states during the [Formula: see text]-back task in the presence of calming and exciting music. We decode the arousal and performance states from the skin conductance and behavioral signals, respectively. We derive an arousal-performance model based on the Yerkes-Dodson law. We design a performance-based arousal decoder by considering the corresponding performance and skin conductance as the observation. Results: The quantified arousal and performance are presented. The existence of Yerkes-Dodson law can be interpreted from the arousal-performance relationship. Findings display higher matrices of performance within the exciting music. Conclusions: The performance-based arousal decoder has a better agreement with the Yerkes-Dodson law. Our study can be implemented in designing non-invasive closed-loop systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saman Khazaei
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNew York UniversityNew YorkNY10010USA
| | - Md Rafiul Amin
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of HoustonHoustonTX77004USA
| | - Maryam Tahir
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of HoustonHoustonTX77004USA
| | - Rose T. Faghih
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNew York UniversityNew YorkNY10010USA
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4
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Wong EH, Rosales KP, Looney L. Improving Cognitive Abilities in School-Age Children via Computerized Cognitive Training: Examining the Effect of Extended Training Duration. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1618. [PMID: 38137066 PMCID: PMC10742001 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13121618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Critical neuropsychological capabilities such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and processing speed are foundational to many daily activities. For children, such skills are essential for school success. Thus, children who demonstrate weaknesses in these abilities may experience impaired academic performance; this is especially true for students identified with learning differences who often exhibit less developed cognitive abilities. The purpose of this project was to examine the efficacy of a cognitive training program implemented during the school day to improve abilities predictive of academic achievement. Ninety-five children completed two training activities that were counterbalanced across participants. Analyses of baseline working memory, cognitive flexibility, and processing speed performance relative to those following training showed a strong treatment effect. Moreover, there is notable evidence of greater intervention efficacy with extended engagement with the training program. Implications for neuropsychological research and practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin P. Rosales
- Department of Child Development, California State University, San Bernardino, CA 92407, USA; (E.H.W.); (L.L.)
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5
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Tang C, Huang T, Huang J, Xu N, Lyu H, Wang Y, Cao Y. Effortful and effortless training of executive functions improve brain multiple demand system activities differently: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1243409. [PMID: 38033550 PMCID: PMC10682784 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1243409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Both effortful and effortless training have been shown to be effective in enhancing individuals' executive functions. Effortful training improves domain-specific EFs, while effortless training improves domain-general EFs. Furthermore, effortful training has significantly higher training effects on EFs than effortless training. The neural mechanism underlying these different effects remained unclear. The present study conducted meta-analysis on neuroimaging studies to explore the changes of brain activations induced by effortful and effortless training. The results showed that effortful training induced greater activation in superior frontal gyrus, while effortless training induced greater activation in middle frontal gyrus, precuneus and cuneus. The brain regions of MD system enhanced by effortful training were more associated with core cognitive functions underlying EFs, while those enhanced by effortless training were more correlated with language functions. In addition, the significant clusters induced by effortful training had more overlaps with the MD system than effortless training. These results provided us with possibility to discuss the different behavioral results brought by effortful and effortless training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Tang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- School of Psychology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Brain Development, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- State Key Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Huang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jipeng Huang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- State Key Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Nuo Xu
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Hui Lyu
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- School of Psychology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Brain Development, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Yifei Cao
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- School of Psychology, Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Brain Development, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
- State Key Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Zurich Center for Neuroscience, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Aksu S, Hasırcı Bayır BR, Sayman C, Soyata AZ, Boz G, Karamürsel S. Working memory ımprovement after transcranial direct current stimulation paired with working memory training ın diabetic peripheral neuropathy. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. ADULT 2023:1-14. [PMID: 36630270 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2022.2164717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Association of cognitive deficits and diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is frequent. Working memory (WM) deficits result in impairment of daily activities, diminished functionality, and treatment compliance. Mounting evidence suggests that transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) with concurrent working memory training (WMT) ameliorates cognitive deficits. Emboldening results of tDCS were shown in DPN. The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of anodal tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) coupled with cathodal right DLPFC with concurrent WMT in DPN for the first time. The present randomized triple-blind parallel-group sham-controlled study evaluated the efficacy of 5 sessions of tDCS over the DLPFC concurrent with WMT in 28 individuals with painful DPN on cognitive (primary) and pain-related, psychiatric outcome measures before, immediately after, and 1-month after treatment protocol. tDCS enhanced the efficacy of WMT on working memory and yielded lower anxiety levels than sham tDCS but efficacy was not superior to sham on other cognitive domains, pain severity, quality of life, and depression. tDCS with concurrent WMT enhanced WM and ameliorated anxiety in DPN without affecting other cognitive and pain-related outcomes. Further research scrutinizing the short/long-term efficacy with larger samples is accredited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serkan Aksu
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Türkiye
- Department of Physiology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Buse Rahime Hasırcı Bayır
- Department of Neurology, Health Sciences University, Haydarpaşa Numune Education and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ceyhun Sayman
- Translational Neurodevelopmental Neuroscience Phd Programme, Institute of Health Science, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ahmet Zihni Soyata
- Psychiatry Outpatient Clinic, Başakşehir State Hospital, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Gökalp Boz
- Department of Psychology, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Sacit Karamürsel
- Department of Physiology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Koc University, Istanbul, Türkiye
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7
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Kulkarni M, Covey TJ. Examination of the temporal-spatial dynamics of working memory training-induced neuroplasticity. Brain Res 2023; 1798:148135. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2022.148135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Ventura-Campos N, Ferrando-Esteve L, Epifanio I. The underlying neural bases of the reversal error while solving algebraic word problems. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21654. [PMID: 36522380 PMCID: PMC9755259 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25442-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Problem solving is a core element in mathematical learning. The reversal error in problem solving occurs when students are able to recognize the information in the statement of comparison word problems, but they reverse the relationship between two variables when building the equations. Functional magnetic resonance images were acquired to identify for the first time the neural bases associated with the reversal error. The neuronal bases linked to this error have been used as inputs in 13 classifiers to discriminate between reversal error and non-reversal error groups. We found brain activation in bilateral fronto-parietal areas in the participants who committed reversal errors, and only left fronto-parietal activation in those who did not, suggesting that the reversal error group needed a greater cognitive demand. Instead, the non-reversal error group seems to show that they have developed solid algebraic knowledge. Additionally, the results showed brain activation in the right middle temporal gyrus when comparing the reversal error vs non-reversal error groups. This activation would be associated with the semantic processing which is required to understand the statement and build the equation. Finally, the classifier results show that the brain areas activated could be considered good biomarkers to help us identify competent solvers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Ventura-Campos
- Department of Education and Specific Didactics, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain
| | - Lara Ferrando-Esteve
- Department of Education and Specific Didactics, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain.
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain.
| | - Irene Epifanio
- Department of Mathematics, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain
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9
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Miller JA, Tambini A, Kiyonaga A, D'Esposito M. Long-term learning transforms prefrontal cortex representations during working memory. Neuron 2022; 110:3805-3819.e6. [PMID: 36240768 PMCID: PMC9768795 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The role of the lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) in working memory (WM) is debated. Non-human primate (NHP) electrophysiology shows that the lPFC stores WM representations, but human neuroimaging suggests that the lPFC controls WM content in sensory cortices. These accounts are confounded by differences in task training and stimulus exposure. We tested whether long-term training alters lPFC function by densely sampling WM activity using functional MRI. Over 3 months, participants trained on both a WM and serial reaction time (SRT) task, wherein fractal stimuli were embedded within sequences. WM performance improved for trained (but not novel) fractals and, neurally, delay activity increased in distributed lPFC voxels across learning. Item-level WM representations became detectable within lPFC patterns, and lPFC activity reflected sequence relationships from the SRT task. These findings demonstrate that human lPFC develops stimulus-selective responses with learning, and WM representations are shaped by long-term experience, which could reconcile competing accounts of WM functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Miller
- Wu Tsai Institute, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Arielle Tambini
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Anastasia Kiyonaga
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Mark D'Esposito
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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10
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Pahor A, Seitz AR, Jaeggi SM. Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning. Nat Hum Behav 2022; 6:1243-1256. [PMID: 35726054 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-022-01384-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The extent to which working memory training improves performance on untrained tasks is highly controversial. Here we address this controversy by testing the hypothesis that far transfer may depend on near transfer using mediation models in three separate randomized controlled trials (RCTs). In all three RCTs, totalling 460 individuals, performance on untrained N-back tasks (near transfer) mediated transfer to Matrix Reasoning (representing far transfer) despite the lack of an intervention effect in RCTs 2 and 3. Untrained N-back performance also mediated transfer to a working memory composite, which showed a significant intervention effect (RCT 3). These findings support a model of N-back training in which transfer to untrained N-back tasks gates further transfer (at least in the case of working memory at the construct level) and Matrix Reasoning. This model can help adjudicate between the many studies and meta-analyses of working memory training that have provided mixed results but have not examined the relationship between near and far transfer on an individual-differences level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Pahor
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia.
| | - Aaron R Seitz
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Susanne M Jaeggi
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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11
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Boroshok AL, Park AT, Fotiadis P, Velasquez GH, Tooley UA, Simon KR, Forde JCP, Delgado Reyes LM, Tisdall MD, Bassett DS, Cooper EA, Mackey AP. Individual differences in frontoparietal plasticity in humans. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2022; 7:14. [PMID: 35739201 PMCID: PMC9226021 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-022-00130-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Neuroplasticity, defined as the brain's potential to change in response to its environment, has been extensively studied at the cellular and molecular levels. Work in animal models suggests that stimulation to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) enhances plasticity, and that myelination constrains plasticity. Little is known, however, about whether proxy measures of these properties in the human brain are associated with learning. Here, we investigated the plasticity of the frontoparietal system by asking whether VTA resting-state functional connectivity and myelin map values (T1w/T2w ratios) predicted learning after short-term training on the adaptive n-back (n = 46, ages 18-25). We found that stronger baseline connectivity between VTA and lateral prefrontal cortex predicted greater improvements in accuracy. Lower myelin map values predicted improvements in response times, but not accuracy. Our findings suggest that proxy markers of neural plasticity can predict learning in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin L Boroshok
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Anne T Park
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Panagiotis Fotiadis
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Gerardo H Velasquez
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Ursula A Tooley
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Katrina R Simon
- Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Jasmine C P Forde
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Lourdes M Delgado Reyes
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - M Dylan Tisdall
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Dani S Bassett
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Electrical & Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, 19104, USA
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM, 87501, USA
| | - Emily A Cooper
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry & Vision Science, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Allyson P Mackey
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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12
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Vartanian O, Replete V, Saint SA, Lam Q, Forbes S, Beaudoin ME, Brunyé TT, Bryant DJ, Feltman KA, Heaton KJ, McKinley RA, Van Erp JBF, Vergin A, Whittaker A. What Is Targeted When We Train Working Memory? Evidence From a Meta-Analysis of the Neural Correlates of Working Memory Training Using Activation Likelihood Estimation. Front Psychol 2022; 13:868001. [PMID: 35432071 PMCID: PMC9005969 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.868001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) is the system responsible for maintaining and manipulating information, in the face of ongoing distraction. In turn, WM span is perceived to be an individual-differences construct reflecting the limited capacity of this system. Recently, however, there has been some evidence to suggest that WM capacity can increase through training, raising the possibility that training can functionally alter the neural structures supporting WM. To address the hypothesis that the neural substrates underlying WM are targeted by training, we conducted a meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of WM training using Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE). Our results demonstrate that WM training is associated exclusively with decreases in blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) responses in clusters within the fronto-parietal system that underlie WM, including the bilateral inferior parietal lobule (BA 39/40), middle (BA 9) and superior (BA 6) frontal gyri, and medial frontal gyrus bordering on the cingulate gyrus (BA 8/32). We discuss the various psychological and physiological mechanisms that could be responsible for the observed reductions in the BOLD signal in relation to WM training, and consider their implications for the construct of WM span as a limited resource.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oshin Vartanian
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Vladyslava Replete
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sidney Ann Saint
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Quan Lam
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sarah Forbes
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Monique E. Beaudoin
- Applied Research Laboratory for Intelligence and Security, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Tad T. Brunyé
- U.S. Army DEVCOM Soldier Center, Natick, MA, United States
| | - David J. Bryant
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Kathryn A. Feltman
- U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory, Fort Rucker, AL, United States
| | - Kristin J. Heaton
- U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, United States
| | - Richard A. McKinley
- U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Jan B. F. Van Erp
- Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Soesterberg, Netherlands
- Department of Human Media Interaction, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Annika Vergin
- Bundeswehr Office for Defence Planning, Federal Ministry of Defence, Berlin, Germany
| | - Annalise Whittaker
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, UK Ministry of Defence, Salisbury, United Kingdom
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13
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Ripp I, Wu Q, Wallenwein L, Emch M, Yakushev I, Koch K. Neuronal efficiency following n-back training task is accompanied by a higher cerebral glucose metabolism. Neuroimage 2022; 253:119095. [PMID: 35304266 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies revealed lower neural activation during processing of an n-back task following working memory training, indicating a training-related increase in neural efficiency. In the present study, we asked if the training induced regional neural activation is accompanied by changes in glucose consumption. An active control and an experimental group of healthy middle-aged volunteers conducted 32 sessions of visual and verbal n-back trainings over 8 weeks. We analyzed data of 52 subjects (25 experimental and 27 control group) for practice effects underlying verbal working memory task and 50 subjects (24 experimental and 26 control group) for practice effects underlying visual WM task. The samples of these two tasks were nearly identical (data of 47 subjects were available for both verbal and visual tasks). Both groups completed neuroimaging sessions at a hybrid PET/MR system before and after training. Each session included criterion task fMRI and resting state positron emission tomography with FDG (FDG-PET). As reported previously, lower neural activation following n-back training was found in regions of the fronto-parieto-cerebellar circuitry during a verbal n-back task. Notably, these changes co-occurred spatially with a higher relative FDG-uptake. Decreased neural activation within regions of the fronto-parietal network during visual n-back task did not show co-occurring changes in relative FDG-uptake. There was no direct association between neuroimaging and behavioral measures, which could be due to the inter-subjects' variability in reaching capacity limits. Our findings provide new details for working memory training induced neural efficiency on a molecular level by integrating FDG-PET and fMRI measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Ripp
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC), Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Strasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Qiong Wu
- Department of Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC), Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Strasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany; Institute of Medical Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.
| | - Lara Wallenwein
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Mónica Emch
- Department of Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC), Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Strasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Igor Yakushev
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC), Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Strasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Kathrin Koch
- Department of Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC), Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Strasse 22, Munich 81675, Germany; Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Martinsried, Germany
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14
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Medina Fetterman AM, Vazquez NN, Arnold JE. The Effects of Semantic Role Predictability on the Production of Overt Pronouns in Spanish. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH 2022; 51:169-194. [PMID: 34981304 DOI: 10.1007/s10936-021-09832-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In order to refer in any language, speakers must choose between explicit forms of expression, such as names or descriptions, or more ambiguous forms like pronouns. Current models suggest that reference form is driven by subjecthood, where speakers in English choose pronouns for the subject, and speakers of null pronoun languages like Spanish or Italian use null pronouns. We test this generalization by examining the effect of a different factor, thematic role predictability, on reference production in Spanish. In stories about transfer events (e.g., Ana gave a ball to Liz), speakers prefer to use pronouns more for reference to goals (Liz) than sources (Rosa and Arnold, Journal of Memory and Language 94:43-60, 2017). However, this has not been examined for null pronoun languages. In two experiments, we demonstrate that Spanish speakers are also sensitive to thematic role, but it primarily affects the rate of overt pronouns (ella, el) rather than null pronouns. These results highlight the need to include semantic constraints in models of reference production for null-pronoun languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Medina Fetterman
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, UNC Chapel Hill, Davie Hall #337B, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA
- Department of Psychology, OSU Main Campus, Columbus, USA
| | - Natasha N Vazquez
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, UNC Chapel Hill, Davie Hall #337B, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA
| | - Jennifer E Arnold
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, UNC Chapel Hill, Davie Hall #337B, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA.
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15
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Weatherford KC, Arnold JE. Semantic predictability of implicit causality can affect referential form choice. Cognition 2021; 214:104759. [PMID: 34139477 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Models of language comprehension show that predictable elements are easier to understand. Does predictability also guide production? While many models suggest it does (e.g., Arnold, 1998; Aylett & Turk, 2004; Levy & Jaeger, 2007; Jurafsky, Bell, Gregory, & Raymond, 2001; Mahowald, Fedorenko, Piantadosi, & Gibson; Orita, Vornov, Feldman & Daumé, 2015; Tily & Piantadosi, 2009), several models suggest that it does not make speakers more likely to select pronouns (Fukumura & van Gompel, 2010; Kehler et al., 2008; Kehler & Rohde, 2013; Kehler & Rohde, 2019; Stevenson et al., 1994). Claims that predictability does not affect pronoun production are based on evidence that certain semantic roles are more likely to be re-mentioned in discourse, but speakers do not prefer pronouns for those event roles, especially when predictability stems from implicit causality estimates. These findings contrast with studies of transfer verbs, where goals are more predictable than sources, and speakers do use pronouns more for goals versus sources (Arnold, 2001; Rosa & Arnold, 2017). Our study takes a closer look at the predictability of implicit causes, using a novel experimental paradigm that is more contextualized than the methods used in previous studies. In two experiments, we find that implicit causality does affect pronominalization. This suggests that predictability may play a broad role in both reference production and language production more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn C Weatherford
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Campus Box 3270, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Jennifer E Arnold
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Campus Box 3270, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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16
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Olofsson JK, Ekström I, Lindström J, Syrjänen E, Stigsdotter-Neely A, Nyberg L, Jonsson S, Larsson M. Smell-Based Memory Training: Evidence of Olfactory Learning and Transfer to the Visual Domain. Chem Senses 2021; 45:593-600. [PMID: 32645143 PMCID: PMC7545250 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjaa049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human and non-human animal research converge to suggest that the sense of smell, olfaction, has a high level of plasticity and is intimately associated with visual-spatial orientation and memory encoding networks. We investigated whether olfactory memory (OM) training would lead to transfer to an untrained visual memory (VM) task, as well as untrained olfactory tasks. We devised a memory intervention to compare transfer effects generated by olfactory and non-olfactory (visual) memory training. Adult participants were randomly assigned to daily memory training for about 40 days with either olfactory or visual tasks that had a similar difficulty level. Results showed that while visual training did not produce transfer to the OM task, olfactory training produced transfer to the untrained VM task. Olfactory training also improved participants' performance on odor discrimination and naming tasks, such that they reached the same performance level as a high-performing group of wine professionals. Our results indicate that the olfactory system is highly responsive to training, and we speculate that the sense of smell may facilitate transfer of learning to other sensory domains. Further research is however needed in order to replicate and extend our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas K Olofsson
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.,Swedish Collegium of Advanced Study, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingrid Ekström
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joanna Lindström
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elmeri Syrjänen
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Lars Nyberg
- Umeå Center for Functional Brain Imaging, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Radiation Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sara Jonsson
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Larsson
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Lawlor-Savage L, Kusi M, Clark CM, Goghari VM. No evidence for an effect of a working memory training program on white matter microstructure. INTELLIGENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2021.101541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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18
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Miller SE, DeBoer MD, Scharf RJ. Executive Functions and Academic Outcomes of Low Birthweight Infants: A Prospective Longitudinal U.S. Cohort. Am J Perinatol 2021; 38:602-608. [PMID: 31887746 DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1700858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Executive functions such as working memory and cognitive flexibility are key to lifelong learning. Our hypothesis was that children born low birthweight (LBW), defined as weight < 2,500 g, would have lower cognitive outcomes than those born normal weight, and children with poor executive functioning would be at risk for poor academic outcomes. STUDY DESIGN We evaluated data from 12,656 children followed prospectively in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class 2010-2011, assessing outcomes from kindergarten, first grade, and second grade. Multivariable linear and logistic regressions were run evaluating the relationship between birthweight and cognitive outcomes, and the odds of infants with poor executive functioning having poor academic outcomes. RESULTS Compared with children with normal birthweight, those born LBW had lower mean z-scores for academic and directly assessed executive functions from kindergarten through second grade. LBW children were at an increased risk of scoring in the bottom 20% of children at all time points: second-grade reading odds ratio (OR) = 1.60 (95% confidence interval [CI:] 1.23-2.09), math OR = 1.49 (95% CI: 1.21-1.84), science OR = 1.41 (95% CI: 1.11-1.81), cognitive flexibility OR = 1.61 (95% CI: 1.27-2.02), and working memory OR = 1.40 (95% CI: 1.10-1.77). CONCLUSION LBW infants remain at risk of poor cognitive outcomes in second grade. Early difficulties with executive functioning can increase the risk of a child's academic performance years later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Miller
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Mark D DeBoer
- Division of Pediatric Diabetes and Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Rebecca J Scharf
- Division of Neurodevelopmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia
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19
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Pappa K, Flegal KE, Baylan S, Evans JJ. Working memory training: Taking a step back to retool and create a bridge between clinical and neuroimaging research methods. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2021; 29:1669-1680. [PMID: 33794120 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2021.1904243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Improvements in patient outcomes and mortality after brain injury alongside increasing ageing population have resulted in an increasing need to develop cognitive interventions for individuals experiencing changes in their cognitive function. One topic of increasing research interest is whether cognitive functions such as attention, memory and executive functioning can be improved through the use of working memory training interventions. Both clinical and neuroimaging researchers are working to evidence this, but their efforts rarely come together. We discuss here several issues that may be hindering progress in this area, including the tools researchers utilize to measure cognition, the choice between employing active or passive control groups, the focus on transfer effects at the expense of well-characterized training effects, and the overall lack of neuroimaging studies in individuals with neurological disorders. We argue that the only way to advance the field is to build bridges between the disciplines of clinical neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. We suggest a multi-level framework to validate the efficacy of working memory interventions and other forms of cognitive training that combine both clinical and neuroimaging approaches. We conclude that in order to move forward we need to form multidisciplinary teams, employ interdisciplinary methods, brain imaging quality rating tools and build national and international collaborations based on open science principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Pappa
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Kristin E Flegal
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Satu Baylan
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jonathan J Evans
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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20
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Walton L, Domellöf ME, Boraxbekk CJ, Domellöf E, Rönnqvist L, Bäckström D, Forsgren L, Stigsdotter Neely A. The Effects of Working Memory Updating Training in Parkinson's Disease: A Feasibility and Single-Subject Study on Cognition, Movement and Functional Brain Response. Front Psychol 2021; 11:587925. [PMID: 33519604 PMCID: PMC7838443 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.587925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In Parkinson’s disease (PD), the fronto-striatal network is involved in motor and cognitive symptoms. Working memory (WM) updating training engages this network in healthy populations, as observed by improved cognitive performance and increased striatal BOLD signal. This two-part study aimed to assess the feasibility of WM updating training in PD and measure change in cognition, movement and functional brain response in one individual with PD after WM updating training. A feasibility and single-subject (FL) study were performed in which patients with PD completed computerized WM updating training. The outcome measures were the pre-post changes in criterion and transfer cognitive tests; cognitive complaints; psychological health; movement kinematics; and task-related BOLD signal. Participants in the feasibility study showed improvements on the criterion tests at post-test. FL displayed the largest improvements on the criterion tests and smaller improvements on transfer tests. Furthermore, FL reported improved cognitive performance in everyday life. A shorter onset latency and smoother upper-limb goal-directed movements were measured at post-test, as well as increased activation within the striatum and decreased activation throughout the fronto-parietal WM network. This two-part study demonstrated that WM updating training is feasible to complete for PD patients and that change occurred in FL at post-test in the domains of cognition, movement and functional brain response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lois Walton
- Department of Social and Psychological Studies, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden
| | | | - Carl-Johan Boraxbekk
- Umeå Center for Functional Brain Imaging (UFBI), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Radiation Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark.,Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen (ISMC), Bispebjerg Hospital, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Erik Domellöf
- Department of Psychology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - David Bäckström
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Lars Forsgren
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anna Stigsdotter Neely
- Department of Social and Psychological Studies, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden.,Engineering Psychology, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden
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21
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Nęcka E, Gruszka A, Hampshire A, Sarzyńska-Wawer J, Anicai AE, Orzechowski J, Nowak M, Wójcik N, Sandrone S, Soreq E. The Effects of Working Memory Training on Brain Activity. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11020155. [PMID: 33503877 PMCID: PMC7911688 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11020155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate if two weeks of working memory (WM) training on a progressive N-back task can generate changes in the activity of the underlying WM neural network. Forty-six healthy volunteers (23 training and 23 controls) were asked to perform the N-back task during three fMRI scanning sessions: (1) before training, (2) after the half of training sessions, and (3) at the end. Between the scanning sessions, the experimental group underwent a 10-session training of working memory with the use of an adaptive version of the N-back task, while the control group did not train anything. The N-back task in the scanning sessions was relatively easy (n = 2) in order to ensure high accuracy and a lack of between-group differences at the behavioral level. Such training-induced differences in neural efficiency were expected. Behavioral analyses revealed improved performance of both groups on the N-back task. However, these improvements resulted from the test-retest effect, not the training outside scanner. Performance on the non-trained stop-signal task did not demonstrate any transfer effect. Imaging analysis showed changes in activation in several significant clusters, with overlapping regions of interest in the frontal and parietal lobes. However, patterns of between-session changes of activation did not show any effect of training. The only finding that can be linked with training consists in strengthening the correlation between task performance accuracy and activation of the parietal regions of the neural network subserving working memory (left superior parietal lobule and right supramarginal gyrus posterior). These results suggest that the effects of WM training consist in learning that, in order to ensure high accuracy in the criterion task, activation of the parietal regions implicated in working memory updating must rise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Nęcka
- Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, 31-007 Krakow, Poland; (A.G.); (M.N.); (N.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-126-332-432
| | - Aleksandra Gruszka
- Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, 31-007 Krakow, Poland; (A.G.); (M.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Adam Hampshire
- The C3NL Lab, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BU, UK; (A.H.); (A.-E.A.); (S.S.); (E.S.)
| | | | - Andreea-Elena Anicai
- The C3NL Lab, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BU, UK; (A.H.); (A.-E.A.); (S.S.); (E.S.)
| | - Jarosław Orzechowski
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Psychology of Individual Differences, Wroclaw Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, 53-238 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Michał Nowak
- Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, 31-007 Krakow, Poland; (A.G.); (M.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Natalia Wójcik
- Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, 31-007 Krakow, Poland; (A.G.); (M.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Stefano Sandrone
- The C3NL Lab, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BU, UK; (A.H.); (A.-E.A.); (S.S.); (E.S.)
| | - Eyal Soreq
- The C3NL Lab, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BU, UK; (A.H.); (A.-E.A.); (S.S.); (E.S.)
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22
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Schröder J, Degen C. Economization of cerebral activation under training: The inverse U- shaped function revisited. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2020; 306:111177. [PMID: 32919868 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2020.111177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
As already observed as early as 1967 by Ingvar and Risberg in their pioneering work, effects of practice of working memory on cerebral functions have been confirmed repeatedly in a number of neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Accordingly, initial performance gains are typically accompanied by increased cerebral activation, while consolidation of such performance gains goes along with a subsequent decrease in activation resembling an inverse U-shaped function. This observed pattern can be interpreted as an economization of cerebral functioning as tasks are being accomplished with relatively lower effort and may also apply to other cognitive domains. However, the economization of cerebral activation under training may depend on task difficulty and training characteristics on the one hand and individual factors, including age, intelligence, cognitive reserve, education, physical and mental health on the other. These findings bear important implications for the design of neuroimaging studies and stimulation protocols, in which similar tasks are routinely repeated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Schröder
- Section Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Voss Str. 4, D- 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Christina Degen
- Section Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Voss Str. 4, D- 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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23
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Miró-Padilla A, Bueichekú E, Adrián-Ventura J, Costumero V, Palomar-García MÁ, Villar-Rodríguez E, Marin-Marin L, Aguirre N, Ávila C. Sustained and transient gray matter volume changes after n-back training: A VBM study. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 178:107368. [PMID: 33348048 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Working memory training causes functional adaptations in the brain, which include changes in activation and functional connectivity that remain stable over time. Few studies have investigated gray matter (GM) changes after working memory training, and they have produced heterogeneous results without clarifying the stable effects of training. The present study was designed to test for sustained and transient anatomic changes after only 200 min of working memory training. The voxel-based morphometry technique was used in order to investigate the GM changes produced by a brief single n-back training, immediately and 5 weeks after finishing it. The sample was composed by 59 human participants who underwent MRI scanning and were assigned to either a training group or a passive control group. Results showed sustained GM volume enlargement in the right superior parietal cortex and a transient GM decrease in the right putamen. The brain adaptation in the right superior parietal cortex was stronger in individuals who showed greater improvements in performance. The results provide further evidence that a brief working memory training is able to produce brain plasticity in structures related to the trained task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Miró-Padilla
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Elisenda Bueichekú
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Jesús Adrián-Ventura
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Víctor Costumero
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - María-Ángeles Palomar-García
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Esteban Villar-Rodríguez
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Lidón Marin-Marin
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - Naiara Aguirre
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
| | - César Ávila
- Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Group, Department of Basic Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
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24
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Working memory updating training promotes plasticity & behavioural gains: A systematic review & meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:209-235. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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Shalchy MA, Pergher V, Pahor A, Van Hulle MM, Seitz AR. N-Back Related ERPs Depend on Stimulus Type, Task Structure, Pre-processing, and Lab Factors. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:549966. [PMID: 33240059 PMCID: PMC7668114 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.549966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The N-Back, a common working memory (WM) updating task, is increasingly used in basic and applied psychological research. As such, an increasing number of electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have sought to identify the electrophysiological signatures of N-Back task performance. However, stimulus type, task structure, pre-processing methods, and differences in the laboratory environment, including the EEG recording setup employed, greatly vary across studies, which in turn may introduce inconsistencies in the obtained results. Here we address this issue by conducting nine different variations of an N-Back task manipulating stimulus type and task structure. Furthermore, we explored the effect of the pre-processing method used and differences in the laboratory environment. Results reveal significant differences in behavioral and electrophysiological signatures in response to N-Back stimulus type, task structure, pre-processing method, and laboratory environment. In conclusion, we suggest that experimental factors, analysis pipeline, and laboratory differences, which are often ignored in the literature, need to be accounted for when interpreting findings and making comparisons across studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Alizadeh Shalchy
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Valentina Pergher
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Cognitive Neuropsychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Anja Pahor
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Marc M. Van Hulle
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Aaron R. Seitz
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
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Pei Z, Xu T, Bezerianos A, Li J, Sun Y, Wang H. The Effect of Longitudinal Training on Working Memory Capacities: An Exploratory EEG Study. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2020; 2020:42-45. [PMID: 33017926 DOI: 10.1109/embc44109.2020.9176070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The study of working memory (WM) is a hot topic in recent years and accumulating literatures underlying the achievement and neural mechanism of WM. However, the effect of WM training on cognitive functions were rarely studied. In this study, nineteen healthy young subjects participated in a longitudinal design with one week N-back training (N=1,2,3,4). Experimental results demonstrated that training procedure could help the subjects master more complex psychological tasks when comparing the pre-training performance with those post-training. More specifically, the behavior accuracy increased from 68.14±9.34%, 45.09±14.90%, 39.12±12.71%, and 32.11±10.98% for 1-back, 2-back, 3-back and 4-back respectively to 73.52±4.01%, 69.14±5.28%, 69.09±6.41% and 64.41±5.12% after training. Furthermore, we applied electroencephalogram (EEG) power and functional connectivity to reveal the neural mechanisms of this beneficial effect and found that the EEG power of δ, θ and α band located in the left temporal and occipital lobe increased significantly. Meanwhile, the functional connectivity strength also increased obviously in δ and θ band. In sum, we showed positive effect of WM training on psychological performance and explored the neural mechanisms. Our findings may have the implications for enhancing the performance of participants who are prone to cognitive.
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Non-verbal IQ Gains from Relational Operant Training Explain Variance in Educational Attainment: An Active-Controlled Feasibility Study. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-020-00187-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractResearch suggests that training relational operant patterns of behavior can lead to increases in general cognitive ability and educational outcomes. Most studies to date have been under-powered and included proxy measures of educational attainment. We attempted to extend previous findings with increased experimental control in younger children (aged 6.9–10.1 years). Participants (N = 49) were assigned to either a relational training or chess control group. Over 5 months, teachers assigned class time to complete either relational training or play chess. Those who were assigned relational training gained 8.9 non-verbal IQ (NVIQ) points, while those in the control condition recorded no gains (dppc2 = .99). Regression analyses revealed that post-training NVIQ predicted reading test scores (conducted approximately 1 month later) over and above baseline NVIQ in the experimental condition only, consistent with what we might expect in a full test of far transfer towards educational outcomes.
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Au J, Gibson BC, Bunarjo K, Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi SM. Quantifying the Difference between Active and Passive Control Groups in Cognitive Interventions Using two Meta-Analytical Approaches. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2020; 4:192-210. [PMID: 34337311 PMCID: PMC8320766 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-020-00164-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite promising reports of broad cognitive benefit in studies of cognitive training, it has been argued that the reliance of many studies on no-intervention control groups (passive controls) make these reports difficult to interpret because placebo effects cannot be ruled out. Although researchers have recently been trying to incorporate more active controls, in which participants engage in an alternate intervention, previous work has been contentious as to whether this actually yields meaningfully different results. To better understand the influence of passive and active control groups on cognitive interventions, we conducted two meta-analyses to estimate their relative effect sizes. While the first one broadly surveyed the literature by compiling data from 34 meta-analyses, the second one synthesized data from 42 empirical studies that simultaneously employed both types of controls. Both analyses showed no meaningful performance difference between passive and active controls, suggesting that current active control placebo paradigms might not be appropriately designed to reliably capture these non-specific effects or that these effects are minimal in this literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacky Au
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92617
| | - Benjamin C. Gibson
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131
| | - Kimberly Bunarjo
- MIND Research Institute, Irvine, CA, 92617
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697
| | | | - Susanne M. Jaeggi
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92617
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697
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29
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Byrne EM, Ewbank MP, Gathercole SE, Holmes J. The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on within- and cross-paradigm transfer following multi-session backward recall training. Brain Cogn 2020; 141:105552. [PMID: 32298870 PMCID: PMC7221346 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Randomised controlled trial combining backward recall memory training and tDCS. Systematic investigation into task features constraining training transfer. Measurement of potential benefits of tDCS for training and for transfer across tasks with varying degrees of overlap with training task. Training transfer is constrained by paradigm but not task materials. tDCS over left DLPFC (1 mA, 10 min) does not enhance training or transfer.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to enhance the efficacy and generalisation of working memory (WM) training, but there has been little systematic investigation into how coupling task-specific WM training with stimulation impacts more specifically on transfer to untrained tasks. This randomised controlled trial investigated the boundary conditions to transfer by testing firstly whether the benefits of training on backward digit recall (BDR) extend to untrained backward recall tasks and n-back tasks with different materials, and secondly which, if any, form of transfer is enhanced by tDCS. Forty-eight participants were allocated to one of three conditions: BDR training with anodal (10 min, 1 mA) or sham tDCS, or visual search training with sham tDCS, applied over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Transfer was assessed on within- (backward recall with digits, letters, and spatial locations) and cross-paradigm (n-back with digits and letters) transfer tests following three sessions of training and stimulation. On-task training gains were found, with transfer to other backward span but not n-back tasks. There was little evidence that tDCS enhanced on-task training or transfer. These findings indicate that training enhances paradigm-specific processes within WM, but that tDCS does not enhance these gains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Byrne
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK.
| | - Michael P Ewbank
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK.
| | - Susan E Gathercole
- Department of Psychiatry, Douglas House, 18b Trumpington Road, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 8AH, UK.
| | - Joni Holmes
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, 15 Chaucer Road, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK.
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Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of Cogmed training on working memory in adults with ADHD, including the generalization of effects to nonverbal reasoning, executive function in daily life, and ADHD symptoms. Method: Adults of ages 18 to 63 with ADHD were randomly assigned to an experimental group that received the working memory training or to a placebo group that received a low-intensity comparison version of the training. Results: participants in the experimental group showed greater improvement in verbal and visuospatial working memory capacity. Effects persisted 6 months after intervention completion. However, effects did not generalize elsewhere. Conclusion: The results challenge the claims made by Cogmed to the effect that the program is effective in treating attention problems and improving performance in daily life over the long term in adults with ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie Dentz
- Université du Québec à Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
| | | | | | - Lucia Romo
- Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
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Locating neural transfer effects of n-back training on the central executive: a longitudinal fMRI study. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5226. [PMID: 32251354 PMCID: PMC7089996 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62067-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The large number of behavioral studies testing whether working memory training improves performance on an untrained task have yielded inconclusive results. Moreover, some studies have investigated the possible neural changes during the performance of untrained tasks after training. Here, we studied the transfer from n-back training to the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), two different tasks that use the central executive system to maintain verbal stimuli. Participants completed fMRI sessions at baseline, immediately after one week of training, and at the five-week follow-up. Although behavioral transfer effects were not obtained, training was associated with decreased activation in the anterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; BA 9/46) while performing the PASAT that remained stable five weeks later. Consistent with our hypothesis, the changes in the anterior DLFPC largely overlapped with the n-back task fMRI activations. In conclusion, working memory training improves efficiency in brain areas involved in the trained task that may affect untrained tasks, specifically in brain areas responsible for the same cognitive processes.
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32
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Wiest DJ, Wong EH, Bacon JM, Rosales KP, Wiest GM. The effectiveness of computerized cognitive training on working memory in a school setting. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dudley J. Wiest
- Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and CounselingCalifornia State University San Bernardino San Bernardino CA
| | - Eugene H. Wong
- Department of PsychologyCalifornia State University San Bernardino San Bernardino CA
| | - Jennifer M. Bacon
- Department of PsychologyCalifornia State University San Bernardino San Bernardino CA
| | - Kevin P. Rosales
- Division of Behavioral and Organizational SciencesClaremont Graduate University Claremont CA
| | - Grahamm M. Wiest
- Department of PsychologyAlliant International University Los Angeles CA
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Abstract
Neurobehavioral effects of cognitive training have become a popular research issue. Specifically, behavioral studies have demonstrated the long-term efficacy of cognitive training of working memory functions, but the neural basis for this training have been studied only at short-term. Using fMRI, we investigate the cerebral changes produced by brief single n-back training immediately and 5 weeks after finishing the training. We used the data from a sample of 52 participants who were assigned to either an experimental condition (training group) or a no-contact control condition. Both groups completed three fMRI sessions with the same n-back task. Behavioral and brain effects were studied, comparing the conditions and sessions in both groups. Our results showed that n-back training improved performance in terms of accuracy and response speed in the trained group compared to the control group. These behavioral changes in trained participants were associated with decreased activation in various brain areas related to working memory, specifically the frontal superior/middle cortex, inferior parietal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and middle temporal cortex. Five weeks after training, the behavioral and brain changes remained stable. We conclude that cognitive training was associated with an improvement in behavioral performance and decreased brain activation, suggesting better neural efficiency that persists over time.
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Brooks SJ, Mackenzie-Phelan R, Tully J, Schiöth HB. Review of the Neural Processes of Working Memory Training: Controlling the Impulse to Throw the Baby Out With the Bathwater. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:512761. [PMID: 33132926 PMCID: PMC7511702 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.512761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Smartphone technology has enabled the creation of many working memory training (WMT) Apps, with those peer-reviewed described in a recent review. WMT claims to improve working memory, attention deficits, hyperactivity and fluid intelligence, in line with plasticity brain changes. Critics argue that WMT is unable to achieve "far-transfer"-the attainment of benefits to cognition from one taught context to another dissimilar context-associated with improved quality of life. However, brain changes after a course of WMT in frontoparietal and striatal circuits-that often occur prior to behavioral changes-may be a better indicator of far-transfer efficacy, especially to improve impulse control commonly dysregulated in those with addictive disorders, yet not commonly examined in WMT studies. METHOD In contrast to previous reviews, the aim here is to focus on the findings of brain imaging WMT training studies across various imaging modalities that use various paradigms, published via PubMed, Scopus, Medline, and Google Scholar. RESULTS 35 brain imaging studies utilized fMRI, structural imaging (MRI, DTI), functional connectivity, EEG, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), cerebral perfusion, and neurogenetic analyses with tasks based on visuospatial and auditory working memory, dual and standard n-back. DISCUSSION Evidence suggests that repeated WMT reduces brain activation in frontoparietal and striatal networks reflective of increased neural circuitry efficiency via myelination and functional connectivity changes. Neural effects of WMT may persist months after training has ended, lead to non-trained task transfer, be strengthened by auxiliary methods such as tDCS and be related to COMT polymorphisms. WMT could be utilized as an effective, non-invasive intervention for working memory deficits to treat impulse and affective control problems in people with addictive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Brooks
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Neuroscience Research Laboratory (NeuRL), Department of Psychology, School of Human and Community Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Rhiannon Mackenzie-Phelan
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Tully
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Helgi B Schiöth
- Section of Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Institute for Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
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35
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Effects of Performance and Task Duration on Mental Workload during Working Memory Task. PHOTONICS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/photonics6030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
N-back is a working memory (WM) task to study mental workload on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We assume that the subject’s performance and changes in mental workload over time depends on the length of the experiment. The performance of the participant can change positively due to the participant’s learning process or negatively because of objective mental fatigue and/or sleepiness. In this pilot study, we examined the PFC activation of 23 healthy subjects while they performed an N-back task with two different levels of task difficulty (2-, and 3-back). The hemodynamic responses were analyzed along with the behavioral data (correct answers). A comparison was done between the hemodynamic activation and behavioral data between the two different task levels and between the beginning and end of the 3-back task. Our results show that there is a significant difference between the two task levels, which is due to the difference in task complication. In addition, a significant difference was seen between the beginning and end of the 3-back task in both behavioral data and hemodynamics due to the subject’s learning process throughout the experiment.
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36
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Simonet M, Roten FCV, Spierer L, Barral J. Executive control training does not generalize, even when associated with plastic changes in domain-general prefrontal areas. Neuroimage 2019; 197:457-469. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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Home-based Cognitive Prehabilitation in Older Surgical Patients: A Feasibility Study. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2019; 31:212-217. [PMID: 30557230 DOI: 10.1097/ana.0000000000000569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive training is beneficial in various clinical settings, although its perioperative feasibility and impact remain unknown. The objective of this pilot study was to determine the feasibility of home-based cognitive prehabilitation before major surgery in older adults. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixty-one patients were enrolled, randomized, and allocated to either a home-based preoperative cognitive training regimen or no training before surgery. Outcomes included postoperative delirium incidence (primary outcome; assessed with the 3D-Confusion Assessment Method), perioperative cognitive function based on NIH Toolbox measures, hospital length of stay, and physical therapy session participation. Reasons for declining enrollment were reported, as were reasons for opting out of the training program. RESULTS Postoperative delirium incidence was 6 of 23 (26%) in the prehabilitation group compared with 5 of 29 (17%) in the control group (P=0.507). There were no significant differences between groups in NIH Toolbox cognitive function scoring, hospital length of stay, or physical therapy participation rates. Study feasibility data were also collected and reported. The most common reasons for declining enrollment were lack of computer access (n=19), time commitment (n=9), and feeling overwhelmed (n=9). In the training group, only 5 of 29 (17%) included patients were able to complete the prescribed 7 days of training, and 14 of 29 (48%) opted out of training once home. Most common reasons were feeling overwhelmed (n=4) and computer difficulties (n=3). CONCLUSIONS Short-term, home-based cognitive training before surgery is unlikely to be feasible for many older patients. Barriers to training include feeling overwhelmed, technical issues with training, and preoperative time commitment.
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Pergher V, Shalchy MA, Pahor A, Van Hulle MM, Jaeggi SM, Seitz AR. Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2019; 4:100-120. [PMID: 34355115 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Working memory training has been a hot topic over the last decade. Although studies show benefits in trained and untrained tasks as a function of training, there is an ongoing debate on the efficacy of working memory training. There have been numerous meta-analyses put forth to the field, some finding overall broad transfer effects while others do not. However, discussion of this research typically overlooks specific qualities of the training and transfer tasks. As such, there has been next to no discussion in the literature on what training and transfer tasks features are likely to mediate training outcomes. To address this gap, here, we characterized the broad diversity of features employed in N-back training tasks and outcome measures in published working memory training studies. Extant meta-analyses have not taken into account the diversity of methodology at this level, primarily because there are too few studies using common methods to allow for a robust meta-analysis. We suggest that these limitations preclude strong conclusions from published data. In order to advance research on working memory training, and in particular, N-back training, more studies are needed that systematically compare training features and use common outcome measures to assess transfer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Pergher
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Anja Pahor
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Marc M Van Hulle
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven-University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Susanne M Jaeggi
- School of Education, School of Social Sciences, Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Aaron R Seitz
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA.,School of Education, School of Social Sciences, Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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Ikeda T, Takahashi T, Hiraishi H, Saito DN, Kikuchi M. Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Induces High Gamma-Band Activity in the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex During a Working Memory Task: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Crossover Study. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:136. [PMID: 31105540 PMCID: PMC6491895 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to have mixed effects on working memory (WM) capacity in healthy individuals. Different stimulation paradigms may account for these discrepancies, with certain features being favored. To determine the effect in the context of anodal tDCS, we investigated whether anodal tDCS induced cortical oscillatory changes during a WM task. Specifically, we tested whether anodal offline tDCS over the left prefrontal cortex (PFC) enhances WM capacity by modulating the oscillatory activity in the left dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) using magnetoencephalography (MEG). This study employed a double-blind, randomized, crossover design, in which 24 healthy right-handed participants conducted MEG recordings during a 3-back task after administration of 2 mA tDCS or sham stimulation as a placebo. Our results showed that the effect of tDCS did not appear in the behavioral indices—WM accuracy (d′) or reaction time (RT). From the results of the time-frequency analysis, significant event-related synchronization (ERS) in the high-gamma band (82–84 Hz) of the left DLPFC was found under the tDCS condition; however, ERS was not correlated with WM capacity. Furthermore, we calculated the modulation index (MI), which indicates the strength of phase-amplitude coupling (PAC). tDCS significantly decreased MI of the left DLPFC, representing the theta-gamma PAC during the n-back task using color names as verbal stimuli. Our results suggest that although tDCS increased the gamma-band oscillation indicating greater neural activity in the left DLPFC, it did not lead to an improvement of WM capacity; this may be due to the inability of gamma-band oscillation to couple with the task-induced theta wave. WM capacity might not increase unless theta-gamma PAC is not enhanced by tDCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Ikeda
- Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Department of Neuropsychiatry, University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Hiraishi
- Department of Biofunctional Imaging, Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Daisuke N Saito
- Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Kikuchi
- Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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Gallen CL, D'Esposito M. Brain Modularity: A Biomarker of Intervention-related Plasticity. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23:293-304. [PMID: 30827796 PMCID: PMC6750199 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Interventions using methods such as cognitive training and aerobic exercise have shown potential to enhance cognitive abilities. However, there is often pronounced individual variability in the magnitude of these gains. Here, we propose that brain network modularity, a measure of brain subnetwork segregation, is a unifying biomarker of intervention-related plasticity. We present work from multiple independent studies demonstrating that individual differences in baseline brain modularity predict gains in cognitive control functions across several populations and interventions, spanning healthy adults to patients with clinical deficits and cognitive training to aerobic exercise. We believe that this predictive framework provides a foundation for developing targeted, personalized interventions to improve cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney L Gallen
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscape, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Mark D'Esposito
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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41
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Hernandez-Garcia L, Lahiri A, Schollenberger J. Recent progress in ASL. Neuroimage 2019; 187:3-16. [PMID: 29305164 PMCID: PMC6030511 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This article aims to provide the reader with an overview of recent developments in Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) MRI techniques. A great deal of progress has been made in recent years in terms of the SNR and acquisition speed. New strategies have been introduced to improve labeling efficiency, reduce artefacts, and estimate other relevant physiological parameters besides perfusion. As a result, ASL techniques has become a reliable workhorse for researchers as well as clinicians. After a brief overview of the technique's fundamentals, this article will review new trends and variants in ASL including vascular territory mapping and velocity selective ASL, as well as arterial blood volume imaging techniques. This article will also review recent processing techniques to reduce partial volume effects and physiological noise. Next the article will examine how ASL techniques can be leveraged to calculate additional physiological parameters beyond perfusion and finally, it will review a few recent applications of ASL in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anish Lahiri
- FMRI Laboratory, University of Michigan, United States
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42
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Tsai N, Buschkuehl M, Kamarsu S, Shah P, Jonides J, Jaeggi SM. (Un)Great Expectations: The Role of Placebo Effects in Cognitive Training. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2018; 7:564-573. [PMID: 31660288 PMCID: PMC6816757 DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of literature demonstrating the malleability of critical higher-order cognitive functions by means of targeted interventions has incited widespread scientific interest, most notably in the form of cognitive training programs. The results are mixed and a point of contention: It has been argued that gains observed in cognitive training are mainly due to placebo effects. To address this, we examined the effect of participant expectations on one type of cognitive training that has been central to the controversy, namely n-back training, by inducing beliefs about expected outcomes. Participants receiving n-back training showed improvements in non-trained n-back performance regardless of expectations, and furthermore, expectations for positive outcomes did not result in any significant gains in an active control group. Thus, there was no detectable expectancy effect in either direction as a function of the cognitive intervention used, suggesting that training-related improvements are unlikely due solely to a placebo effect.
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43
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Adam KCS, Vogel EK. Improvements to visual working memory performance with practice and feedback. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203279. [PMID: 30161210 PMCID: PMC6117037 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual working memory capacity is estimated to be around 3-4 items, but on some trials participants fail to correctly report even a single item from the memory array. Such failures of working memory performance are surprisingly common, and participants have poor self-awareness of them. Previous work has shown that behavioral feedback can reduce the frequency of working memory failures, but the benefits of feedback disappeared immediately after it was taken away. Here, we tested whether extended practice with or without trial-by-trial feedback would lead to persistent improvements in working memory performance. Participants were assigned to one of four groups: (1) Working memory practice with feedback (2) Working memory practice without feedback (3) Crossword puzzle active control (4) No-contact control. Consistent with previous work, simple practice with a visual working memory task robustly improved working memory performance across practice sessions. However, we found only partial support for the efficacy of feedback in improving working memory performance. Practicing with feedback improved working memory performance relative to a no-feedback group for some practice sessions. However, the feedback benefits did not persist across all training sessions and did not transfer to a final test session without the feedback. Thus, the benefits of performance feedback did not persist over time. Further, we found only stimulus-specific transfer of visual working memory practice benefits. We also found that participants' metaknowledge improved with practice, but that receiving feedback about task accuracy actually slightly harmed the accuracy of concurrent metaknowledge ratings. Finally, we discuss important design considerations for future work in this area (e.g. power, expectations, and "spacing effects"). For example, we found that achieved statistical power to detect a between-groups effect declined with practice. This finding has potentially critical implications for any study using a 1-session study to calculate power for a planned multi-session study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten C. S. Adam
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Edward K. Vogel
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Grossman Institute for Neuroscience, Quantitative Biology, and Human Behavior, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
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Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychon Bull Rev 2018; 24:1077-1096. [PMID: 28116702 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of working memory (WM) training has been a controversial and hotly debated issue during the past years. Despite a large number of training studies and several meta-analyses, the matter has not yet been solved. We conducted a multi-level meta-analysis on the cognitive transfer effects in healthy adults who have been administered WM updating training with n-back tasks, the most common experimental WM training paradigm. Thanks to this methodological approach that has not been employed in previous meta-analyses in this field, we were able to include effect sizes from all relevant tasks used in the original studies. Altogether 203 effect sizes were derived from 33 published, randomized, controlled trials. In contrast to earlier meta-analyses, we separated task-specific transfer (here untrained n-back tasks) from other WM transfer tasks. Two additional cognitive domains of transfer that we analyzed consisted of fluid intelligence (Gf) and cognitive control tasks. A medium-sized transfer effect was observed to untrained n-back tasks. For other WM tasks, Gf, and cognitive control, the effect sizes were of similar size and very small. Moderator analyses showed no effects of age, training dose, training type (single vs. dual), or WM and Gf transfer task contents (verbal vs. visuospatial). We conclude that a substantial part of transfer following WM training with the n-back task is task-specific and discuss the implications of the results to WM training research.
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Cognitive Training for Military Application: a Review of the Literature and Practical Guide. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-018-0076-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Zhao X, Xu Y, Fu J, Maes JHR. Are training and transfer effects of working memory updating training modulated by achievement motivation? Mem Cognit 2018; 46:398-409. [PMID: 29185201 PMCID: PMC5880846 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-017-0773-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies examining effects of working memory (WM) updating training revealed mixed results. One factor that might modulate training gains, and possibly also transfer of those gains to non-trained cognitive tasks, is achievement motivation. In the present Studies 1 and 2, students with either a high (HAM) or low (LAM) achievement motivation completed a 14-day visuospatial WM updating training program. In Study 2, the students also performed a set of tasks measuring other executive functions and fluid intelligence prior to and after training. In both studies, the HAM students displayed a larger training gain than the LAM students. Study 2 revealed that after training, both groups showed better performance on the near-transfer but not far-transfer tasks. Importantly, the differential training gain was not associated with better post-training performance for the HAM compared to the LAM students on any of the transfer tasks. These results are taken to support a modulatory role of achievement motivation on WM training benefits, but not on transfer of those benefits to other tasks. Possible reasons for the general improvement on the near-transfer tasks and the absence of a modulatory role of achievement motivation on transfer-task performance are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhao
- Behavior Rehabilitation Training Research Institution, School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yiwenjie Xu
- Behavior Rehabilitation Training Research Institution, School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Junjun Fu
- Behavior Rehabilitation Training Research Institution, School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Joseph H R Maes
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognition, Radboud University, PO. Box 9104, Nijmegen, 6500 HE, The Netherlands.
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Miller SE, DeBoer MD, Scharf RJ. Executive functioning in low birth weight children entering kindergarten. J Perinatol 2018; 38:98-103. [PMID: 29048410 DOI: 10.1038/jp.2017.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Poor executive functioning is associated with life-long difficulty. Identification of children at risk for executive dysfunction is important for early intervention to improve neurodevelopmental outcomes. STUDY DESIGN This study is designed to examine relationships between birthweight and executive functioning in US children during kindergarten. Our hypothesis was that children with higher birthweights would have better executive function scores. We evaluated data from 17506 US children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten 2011 cohort. Birthweight and gestational age were obtained by parental survey. Executive functions were directly assessed using the number reverse test and card sort test to measure working memory and cognitive flexibility, respectively. Teacher evaluations were used for additional executive functions. Data were analyzed using SAS to run all linear and logistical regressions. RESULTS For every kilogram of birthweight, scores of working memory increased by 1.47 (P<0.001) and cognitive flexibility increased by 0.28 (P<0.001) independent of gender, gestational age, parental education, and family income. Low birthweight infants were 1.5 times more likely to score in the bottom 20% of children on direct assessment OR=1.49 (CI 1.21-1.85) and OR=1.55 (CI 1.26-1.91). CONCLUSIONS Infants born low birthweight are at increased risk of poor executive functioning. As birthweight increases executive function scores improve, even among infants born normal weight. Further evaluation of this population including interventions and progression through school is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Miller
- Division of Neonatology, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - M D DeBoer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA.,Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - R J Scharf
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA.,Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, University of Virginia Children's Hospital, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Blacker KJ, Negoita S, Ewen JB, Courtney SM. N-back versus Complex Span Working Memory Training. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2017; 1:434-454. [PMID: 29430567 PMCID: PMC5805159 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-017-0044-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) is the ability to maintain and manipulate task-relevant information in the absence of sensory input. While its improvement through training is of great interest, the degree to which WM training transfers to untrained WM tasks (near transfer) and other untrained cognitive skills (far transfer) remains debated and the mechanism(s) underlying transfer are unclear. Here we hypothesized that a critical feature of dual n-back training is its reliance on maintaining relational information in WM. In Experiment 1, using an individual differences approach, we found evidence that performance on an n-back task was predicted by performance on a measure of relational WM (i.e., WM for vertical spatial relationships independent of absolute spatial locations); whereas the same was not true for a complex span WM task. In Experiment 2, we tested the idea that reliance on relational WM is critical to produce transfer from n-back but not complex span task training. Participants completed adaptive training on either a dual n-back task, a symmetry span task, or on a non-WM active control task. We found evidence of near transfer for the dual n-back group; however, far transfer to a measure of fluid intelligence did not emerge. Recording EEG during a separate WM transfer task, we examined group-specific, training-related changes in alpha power, which are proposed to be sensitive to WM demands and top-down modulation of WM. Results indicated that the dual n-back group showed significantly greater frontal alpha power after training compared to before training, more so than both other groups. However, we found no evidence of improvement on measures of relational WM for the dual n-back group, suggesting that near transfer may not be dependent on relational WM. These results suggest that dual n-back and complex span task training may differ in their effectiveness to elicit near transfer as well as in the underlying neural changes they facilitate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara J. Blacker
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Serban Negoita
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Joshua B. Ewen
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
- Neurology and Developmental Medicine, Kennedy Krieger Institute
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Susan M. Courtney
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
- F.M. Kirby Center for Functional Neuroimaging, Kennedy Krieger Institute
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Functional brain activation associated with working memory training and transfer. Behav Brain Res 2017; 334:34-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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