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Shao W, Zhou H, Qi Y, Zhu Z, Zhang T, Chen Y, Chen Y, Yu X. Dissociated contributions of working memory and inhibitory control to children's and adults' analogical reasoning: Analogical strategies matter. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 244:105950. [PMID: 38735221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
This study investigated whether and how each component of working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) is related to analogical reasoning. Specifically, the mediating roles of analogical strategies were examined and compared across children and adults. In total, 79 children (50 girls; M ± SD = 8.43 ± 0.59 years old) and 77 adults (35 female; 19.44 ± 0.82 years old) were administered tests of WM, IC, and analogical reasoning. In addition, participants' eye movement data during the analogical reasoning task were collected to classify the analogical strategies. The results showed that the semantic-constraint strategy completely mediated the relationship between WM (rather than IC) and analogical reasoning for children. However, for adults, the project-first strategy partially mediated the association between IC (rather than WM) and analogical reasoning. These findings reveal the dissociated roles of WM and IC in analogical reasoning through analogical strategies for children and adults and highlight the importance of analogical strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shao
- Department of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Forestry University, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Haichun Zhou
- Department of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Forestry University, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Qi
- School of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, People's Republic of China
| | - Zejia Zhu
- The Thacher School, Ojai, CA 93023, USA
| | - Tianci Zhang
- Department of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Forestry University, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiran Chen
- Department of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Forestry University, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinghe Chen
- School of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department of Psychology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Forestry University, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China.
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Laine M, Jylkkä J, Ritakallio L, Eräste T, Kangas S, Hering A, Zuber S, Kliegel M, Fellman D, Salmi J. Spontaneous memory strategies in a videogame simulating everyday memory tasks. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:611-625. [PMID: 37309805 PMCID: PMC10958750 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231183958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
People can use different internal strategies to manage their daily tasks, but systematic research on these strategies and their significance for actual performance is still quite sparse. Here we examined self-reported internal strategy use with a 10-block version of the videogame EPELI (Executive Performance in Everyday LIving) in a group of 202 neurotypical adults of 18-50 years of age. In the game, participants perform lists of everyday tasks from memory while navigating in a virtual apartment. Open-ended strategy reports were collected after each EPELI task block, and for comparison also after an EPELI Instruction Recall task and a Word List Learning task assessing episodic memory. On average, 45% of the participants reported using some strategy in EPELI, the most common types being grouping (e.g., performing the tasks room by room), utilising a familiar action schema, and condensing information (e.g., memorising only keywords). Our pre-registered hypothesis on the beneficial effect of self-initiated strategy use gained support, as strategy users showed better performance on EPELI as compared with no strategy users. One of the strategies, grouping, was identified as a clearly effective strategy type. Block-by-block transitions suggested gradual stabilisation of strategy use over the 10 EPELI blocks. The proneness to use strategies showed a weak but reliable association between EPELI and Word List Learning. Overall, the present results highlight the importance of internal strategy use for understanding individual differences in memory performance, as well as the potential benefit for internal strategy employment when faced with everyday memory tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matti Laine
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Jussi Jylkkä
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Liisa Ritakallio
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Tilda Eräste
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Suvi Kangas
- Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Alexandra Hering
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Zuber
- Centre for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES—Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives, Lausanne & Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Centre for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Fellman
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Juha Salmi
- Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
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Ritakallio L, Fellman D, Salmi J, Jylkkä J, Laine M. Self-reported strategy use in working memory tasks. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4893. [PMID: 38418835 PMCID: PMC10901888 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54160-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Mnemonic strategies can facilitate working memory performance, but our knowledge on strategy use as a function of task characteristics remains limited. We examined self-reported strategy use in several working memory tasks with pretest data from two large-scale online training experiments. A three-level measure of strategy sophistication (no strategy, maintenance, manipulation) was coded based on participants' open-ended strategy reports. A considerable portion of participants reported some memory strategy, and strategy sophistication was associated with objective task performance. We found a consistent effect of stimulus type: verbal stimuli (letters or digits) elicited higher strategy sophistication than nonverbal ones (colours or spatial positions). In contrast, the association between task paradigm and strategy sophistication was less consistent in the two experiments. The present results highlight the importance of self-generated strategies in understanding individual differences in working memory performance and the role of stimulus characteristics as one of the task-related determinants of strategy use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liisa Ritakallio
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Daniel Fellman
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Juha Salmi
- Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Jussi Jylkkä
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Matti Laine
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
- Turku Brain and Mind Center, Turku, Finland
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Laine M, Fellman D, Eräste T, Ritakallio L, Salmi J. Strategy use and its evolvement in word list learning: a replication study. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:230651. [PMID: 38356871 PMCID: PMC10864779 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Spontaneous strategy employment is important for memory performance, but systematic research on strategy use and within-task evolvement is limited. This online study aimed to replicate three main findings by Waris and colleagues in Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2021): in word-list learning, spontaneous strategy use (1) predicts better task performance, (2) stabilizes along the task, and (3) increases during the first two task blocks. We administered a shortened version of their original real-word list-learning task to 209 neurotypical adults. Their first finding was partly replicated: manipulation strategies (grouping, visualization, association, narrative, other strategy) but not maintenance strategies (rehearsal/repetition, selective focus) were associated with superior word recall. The second finding on the decrease in strategy changers over task blocks was replicated. The third finding turned out to be misguided: neither our nor the original study showed task-initial increase in strategy use in the real-word learning condition. Our results confirm the important role of spontaneous strategies in understanding memory performance and the existence of task-initial dynamics in strategy employment. They support the general conclusions by Waris and colleagues: task demands can trigger strategy use even in a familiar task like learning a list of common words, and evolution of strategy use during a memory task reflects cognitive skill learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matti Laine
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Daniel Fellman
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Tilda Eräste
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Liisa Ritakallio
- Department of Psychology, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Juha Salmi
- Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
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Ness T, Langlois VJ, Kim AE, Novick JM. The State of Cognitive Control in Language Processing. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023:17456916231197122. [PMID: 37819251 DOI: 10.1177/17456916231197122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Understanding language requires readers and listeners to cull meaning from fast-unfolding messages that often contain conflicting cues pointing to incompatible ways of interpreting the input (e.g., "The cat was chased by the mouse"). This article reviews mounting evidence from multiple methods demonstrating that cognitive control plays an essential role in resolving conflict during language comprehension. How does cognitive control accomplish this task? Psycholinguistic proposals have conspicuously failed to address this question. We introduce an account in which cognitive control aids language processing when cues conflict by sending top-down biasing signals that strengthen the interpretation supported by the most reliable evidence available. We also provide a computationally plausible model that solves the critical problem of how cognitive control "knows" which way to direct its biasing signal by allowing linguistic knowledge itself to issue crucial guidance. Such a mental architecture can explain a range of experimental findings, including how moment-to-moment shifts in cognitive-control state-its level of activity within a person-directly impact how quickly and successfully language comprehension is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Ness
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences and Program in Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park
| | - Valerie J Langlois
- Institute for Cognitive Science and Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder
| | - Albert E Kim
- Institute for Cognitive Science and Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder
| | - Jared M Novick
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences and Program in Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park
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Ni N, Gathercole SE, Norris D, Saito S. Asymmetric negative transfer effects of working memory training. Mem Cognit 2023; 51:1654-1669. [PMID: 37084067 PMCID: PMC10520134 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01412-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Gathercole et al. (Journal of Memory and Language, 105, 19-42, 2019) presented a cognitive routine framework for explaining the underlying mechanisms of working memory (WM) training and transfer. This framework conceptualizes training-induced changes as the acquisition of novel cognitive routines similar to learning a new skill. We further infer that WM training might not always generate positive outcomes because previously acquired routines may affect subsequent task performance in various ways. Thus, the present study aimed to demonstrate the negative effects of WM training via two experiments. We conducted Experiment 1 online using a two-phase training paradigm with only three training sessions per phase and replicated the key findings of Gathercole and Norris (in prep.) that training on a backward circle span task (a spatial task) transferred negatively to subsequent training on a backward letter span task (a verbal task). We conducted Experiment 2 using a reversed task order design corresponding to Experiment 1. The results indicated that the transfer from backward letter training to backward circle training was not negative, but rather weakly positive, suggesting that the direction of the negative transfer effect is asymmetric. The present study therefore found that a negative transfer effect can indeed occur under certain WM training designs. The presence of this asymmetric effect indicates that backward circle and backward letter tasks require different optimal routines and that the locus of negative transfer might be the acquisition process of such optimal routines. Hence, the routines already established for backward circle might hinder the development of optimal routines for backward letter, but not vice versa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Ni
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan.
| | - Susan E Gathercole
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Dennis Norris
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Satoru Saito
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan.
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Cheng J, Li J, Wang A, Zhang M. Semantic Bimodal Presentation Differentially Slows Working Memory Retrieval. Brain Sci 2023; 13:brainsci13050811. [PMID: 37239283 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13050811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Although evidence has shown that working memory (WM) can be differentially affected by the multisensory congruency of different visual and auditory stimuli, it remains unclear whether different multisensory congruency about concrete and abstract words could impact further WM retrieval. By manipulating the attention focus toward different matching conditions of visual and auditory word characteristics in a 2-back paradigm, the present study revealed that for the characteristically incongruent condition under the auditory retrieval condition, the response to abstract words was faster than that to concrete words, indicating that auditory abstract words are not affected by visual representation, while auditory concrete words are. Alternatively, for concrete words under the visual retrieval condition, WM retrieval was faster in the characteristically incongruent condition than in the characteristically congruent condition, indicating that visual representation formed by auditory concrete words may interfere with WM retrieval of visual concrete words. The present findings demonstrated that concrete words in multisensory conditions may be too aggressively encoded with other visual representations, which would inadvertently slow WM retrieval. However, abstract words seem to suppress interference better, showing better WM performance than concrete words in the multisensory condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Cheng
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Aijun Wang
- Department of Psychology, Research Center for Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
- Faculty of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama University, Okayama 700-0082, Japan
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Malinovitch T, Albouy P, Zatorre RJ, Ahissar M. Training allows switching from limited-capacity manipulations to large-capacity perceptual processing. Cereb Cortex 2023; 33:1826-1842. [PMID: 35511687 PMCID: PMC9977386 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to perceptual tasks, which enable concurrent processing of many stimuli, working memory (WM) tasks have a very small capacity, limiting cognitive skills. Training on WM tasks often yields substantial improvement, suggesting that training might increase the general WM capacity. To understand the underlying processes, we trained a test group with a newly designed tone manipulation WM task and a control group with a challenging perceptual task of pitch pattern discrimination. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans confirmed that pretraining, manipulation was associated with a dorsal fronto-parietal WM network, while pitch comparison was associated with activation of ventral auditory regions. Training induced improvement in each group, which was limited to the trained task. Analyzing the behavior of the group trained with tone manipulation revealed that participants learned to replace active manipulation with a perceptual verification of the position of a single salient tone in the sequence presented as a tentative reply. Posttraining fMRI scans revealed modifications in ventral activation of both groups. Successful WMtrained participants learned to utilize auditory regions for the trained task. These observations suggest that the huge task-specific enhancement of WM capacity stems from a task-specific switch to perceptual routines, implemented in perceptual regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar Malinovitch
- Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
| | - Philippe Albouy
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, Laval University, 2301 Av. D'Estimauville, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Robert J Zatorre
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, 3801, rue University Montreal, Québec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Merav Ahissar
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Edmond J. Safra Campus - Givat Ram, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
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Ben Izhak S, Lavidor M. Strategy and Core Cognitive Training Effects on Working Memory Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2023.2172413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shachar Ben Izhak
- Department of Psychology, and the Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan University
| | - Michal Lavidor
- Department of Psychology, and the Gonda Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan University
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Ritakallio L, Fellman D, Jylkkä J, Waris O, Lönnroth N, Nervander R, Salmi J, Laine M. The Pursuit of Effective Working Memory Training: a Pre-registered Randomised Controlled Trial with a Novel Varied Training Protocol. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-021-00235-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWorking memory (WM) training, typically entailing repetitive practice with one or two tasks, has mostly yielded only limited task-specific transfer effects. We developed and tested a new WM training approach where the task paradigm, stimulus type, and predictability of the stimulus sequence were constantly altered during the 4-week training period. We expected that this varied training protocol would generate more extensive transfer by facilitating the use of more general strategies that could be applied to a range of WM tasks. Pre-post transfer effects following varied training (VT group, n = 60) were compared against traditional training (TT group, training a single adaptive WM task, n = 63), and active controls (AC, n = 65). As expected, TT evidenced strong task-specific near transfer as compared to AC. In turn, VT exhibited task-specific near transfer only on one of the measures, and only as compared to the TT group. Critically, no evidence for task-general near transfer or far transfer effects was observed. In sum, the present form of VT failed to demonstrate broader transfer. Nevertheless, as VT has met with success in other cognitive domains, future studies should probe if and how it would be possible to design WM training protocols that promote structural learning where common features of specific tasks would be identified and utilised when selecting strategies for novel memory tasks.
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