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Li B, Hu X, Shanks DR, Su N, Zhao W, Meng L, Lei W, Luo L, Yang C. Confidence ratings increase response thresholds in decision making. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:1093-1102. [PMID: 37803229 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02380-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
Many mental processes are reactive - they are altered as a result of introspection and monitoring. It has been documented that soliciting trial-by-trial confidence ratings (CRs) reactively improves decision accuracy and lengthens response times (RTs), but the cognitive mechanisms underlying CR reactivity in decision-making remain unknown. The current study conducted two experiments and employed the drift-diffusion model (DDM) to explore why reporting confidence reactively alters the decision-making process. The results showed that CRs led to enhanced decision accuracy, longer RTs, and higher response thresholds. The findings are consistent with an increased conservatism hypothesis which asserts that soliciting CRs provokes feelings of uncertainty and makes individuals more cautious in their decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baike Li
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - David R Shanks
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ningxin Su
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenbo Zhao
- School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Liu Meng
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Lei
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
- State Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
| | - Chunliang Yang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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Li B, Pastötter B, Zhong Y, Su N, Huang T, Zhao W, Hu X, Luo L, Yang C. Judgments of Learning Reactively Improve Memory by Enhancing Learning Engagement and Inducing Elaborative Processing: Evidence from an EEG Study. J Intell 2024; 12:44. [PMID: 38667711 PMCID: PMC11050784 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence12040044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) can reactively alter memory itself, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect. The current study recorded electroencephalography (EEG) signals during the encoding phase of a word list learning task to explore the neurocognitive features associated with JOL reactivity. The behavioral results show that making JOLs reactively enhances recognition performance. The EEG results reveal that, compared with not making JOLs, making JOLs increases P200 and LPC amplitudes and decreases alpha and beta power. Additionally, the signals of event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related desynchronizations (ERDs) partially mediate the reactivity effect. These findings support the enhanced learning engagement theory and the elaborative processing explanation to account for the JOL reactivity effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baike Li
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China;
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Bernhard Pastötter
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, D-54296 Trier, Germany;
| | - Yongen Zhong
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ningxin Su
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment for Basic Education Quality, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ting Huang
- School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Wenbo Zhao
- School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
| | - Xiao Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chunliang Yang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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Chang M, Brainerd C. Judgments of Learning Reactivity on Item-Specific and Relational Processing. J Intell 2024; 12:4. [PMID: 38248902 PMCID: PMC10817339 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence12010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Judgments of learning (JOLs) reactivity refers to the finding that the mere solicitation of JOLs modifies subsequent memory performance. One theoretical explanation is the item-specific processing hypothesis, which posits that item-level JOLs redound to the benefit of later memory performance because they enhance item-specific processing. The current study was designed to test this account. We factorially manipulated the organization (blocked vs. randomized) of categorized lists and JOL condition (item-JOLs, list-JOLs, no-JOLs) between participants, and fit the dual-retrieval model to free recall data to pinpoint the underlying memory processes that were affected by JOL solicitation. Our results showed that item-level JOLs produced positive reactivity for randomized but not for blocked categorized lists. Moreover, we found that the positive JOL reactivity for randomized categorized lists was tied to a familiarity judgment process that is associated with gist processing, rather than to item-specific recollective processes. Thus, our results pose a challenge to the item-specific processing explanation of JOL reactivity. We argue that JOL reactivity is not restricted to item-specific processing; instead, whether JOLs predominantly engage participants with item-specific or relational processing depends on the interaction between learning stimuli and JOLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyu Chang
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Charles Brainerd
- Department of Psychology and Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, G331 MVR Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Double KS. Do Judgments of Learning Impair Recall When Uninformative Cues Are Salient? J Intell 2023; 11:203. [PMID: 37888435 PMCID: PMC10607944 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Judgments of learning (JOL) are one of the most commonly used measures of metamemory. There is mixed evidence that eliciting JOLs while participants are studying word pairs influences their subsequent recall, a phenomenon known as reactivity. The majority of studies have found that positive reactivity occurs when word pairs are related. This finding suggests that when the final test is sensitive to the cues used to make a JOL (e.g., pair relatedness), a benefit to recall is observed. Here, in three experiments, JOL reactivity is examined in the presence of a salient, yet non-diagnostic cue-font size. The results show that when study time is limited and font size is made salient, eliciting JOLs impairs future recall. It is argued that JOLs prompt participants to evaluate salient cues in the learning environment to evaluate whether they will affect future recall. This increased processing of salient cues can impair recall if it comes at the expense of processing less salient but more informative cues. These findings suggest that the relevance to the test of the cues processed when JOLs are performed determines the direction of reactivity effects, with both positive and negative reactivity being possible depending on how diagnostic the salient metacognitive cues are for recall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit S Double
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Rivers ML, Dunlosky J, Janes JL, Witherby AE, Tauber SK. Judgments of learning enhance recall for category-cued but not letter-cued items. Mem Cognit 2023; 51:1547-1561. [PMID: 37173589 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01417-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Making immediate judgments of learning (JOLs) during study can influence later memory performance, with a common outcome being that JOLs improve cued-recall performance for related word pairs (i.e., positive reactivity) and do not impact memory for unrelated pairs (i.e., no reactivity). The cue-strengthening hypothesis proposes that JOL reactivity will be observed when a criterion test is sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Soderstrom et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41 (2), 553-558, 2015). Across four experiments, we evaluated this hypothesis with category pairs (e.g., A type of gem - Jade) and letter pairs (e.g., Ja - Jade). Participants studied a list comprised of both pair types, made (or did not make) JOLs, and completed a cued-recall test (Experiments 1a/b). The cue-strengthening hypothesis predicts greater positive reactivity for category pairs than for letter pairs, because making a JOL strengthens the relationship between the cue and target, which is more beneficial for material with an a priori semantic relationship. Outcomes were consistent with this hypothesis. We also evaluated and ruled out alternative explanations for this pattern of effects: (a) that they arose due to overall differences in recall performance for the two pair types (Experiment 2); (b) that they would also occur even when the criterion test is not sensitive to the cues used to inform JOLs (Experiment 3); and (c) that JOLs only increased memory strength for the targets (Experiment 4). Thus, the current experiments rule out plausible accounts of reactivity effects and provide further, converging evidence for the cue-strengthening hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Rivers
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA.
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA.
| | - John Dunlosky
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Jessica L Janes
- Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Amber E Witherby
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA
- Department of Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Sarah K Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, TCU Box #298920, 2800 S. University Dr, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA
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Zhao W, Xu M, Xu C, Li B, Hu X, Yang C, Luo L. Judgments of Learning Following Retrieval Practice Produce Minimal Reactivity Effect on Learning of Education-Related Materials. J Intell 2023; 11:190. [PMID: 37888422 PMCID: PMC10607076 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11100190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Testing (i.e., retrieval practice) is one of the most powerful strategies to boost learning. A recent study observed an incidental finding that making judgments of learning (JOLs) following retrieval practice further enhanced learning of education-related texts to a medium extent (Cohen's d = 0.44) by comparison with retrieval practice itself, suggesting that making JOLs may serve as an easy-to-implement educational intervention to improve the benefits of testing. Three experiments (one pre-registered) were conducted to test the replicability of Ariel et al.'s incidental finding and to further determine whether making JOLs following retrieval practice reactively enhances the benefits of testing for text learning. The three experiments consistently provided Bayesian evidence supporting no reactivity effect of JOLs following retrieval practice, regardless of whether the replication experiments were conducted in a laboratory (Experiment 1) or online (Experiments 2 and 3), whether the stimuli were presented in the same language (Experiments 2 and 3) or not (Experiment 1), and whether participants were recruited from the sample pool (Experiment 2) or not (Experiments 1 and 3) as in the original study. These null findings imply that making JOLs cannot be utilized as a practical strategy to enhance the benefits of testing for learning of educationally related materials. Possible explanations for the null reactivity effect of JOLs following retrieval practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Zhao
- School of Social Development and Public Policy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
| | - Muzi Xu
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (M.X.)
| | - Chenyuqi Xu
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (M.X.)
| | - Baike Li
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (M.X.)
| | - Xiao Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chunliang Yang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (M.X.)
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (M.X.)
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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Rivers ML, Janes JL, Dunlosky J, Witherby AE, Tauber SK. Exploring the Role of Attentional Reorienting in the Reactive Effects of Judgments of Learning on Memory Performance. J Intell 2023; 11:164. [PMID: 37623547 PMCID: PMC10455363 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11080164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying related word pairs can enhance performance on tests that rely on cue-target associations (e.g., cued recall) compared to studying alone. One possible explanation for this positive JOL reactivity effect is that the prompt to make JOLs, which typically occurs halfway through the presentation of each pair, may encourage learners to devote more attention to the pair during the second half of the encoding episode, which may contribute to enhanced recall performance. To investigate this idea, an online sample of participants (Experiment 1) and undergraduate students (Experiment 2) studied a set of moderately related word pairs (e.g., dairy-cow) in preparation for a cued recall test. Some participants made JOLs for each pair halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants did not. Also, some participants were presented with a fixation point halfway through the presentation, whereas other participants were not. The goal of this fixation point was to simulate the possible "reorienting" effect of a JOL prompt halfway through each encoding episode. In both an unsupervised online context and a supervised laboratory context, cued recall performance was higher for participants who made JOLs compared to those who did not make JOLs. However, presenting a fixation point halfway through the presentation of each pair did not lead to reactive effects on memory. Thus, JOLs are more effective than a manipulation that reoriented participants to the word pairs in another way (i.e., via a fixation point), which provides some initial evidence that positive reactivity for related pairs is not solely driven by attentional reorienting during encoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L. Rivers
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76109, USA
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Jessica L. Janes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - John Dunlosky
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Amber E. Witherby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Sarah K. Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76109, USA
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Witherby AE, Babineau AL, Tauber SK. Does Interactive Imagery Influence the Reactive Effect of Judgments of Learning on Memory? J Intell 2023; 11:139. [PMID: 37504782 PMCID: PMC10382038 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11070139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) while studying is a useful tool for students to evaluate the status of their learning. Additionally, in associative learning contexts, JOLs can directly benefit learning when the to-be-learned information is related. One explanation for this reactive effect is that making JOLs strengthens the associative relationship, leading to enhanced memory performance when a test relies on that relationship (e.g., cued-recall tests). In the present research, we evaluated whether having students make interactive mental images-another strategy that can increase the strength of a cue-target relationship-impacts the reactive effect of JOLs on learning. Students studied word pairs that were related and unrelated. Half of the students were instructed to form a mental image of the words interacting, whereas the other half were not. Additionally, in each group half of the students made a JOL for each pair, whereas half did not. Following a short delay, students completed a cued-recall test. Consistent with prior research, students who made JOLs remembered more related word pairs than did students who did not. By contrast, students who made JOLs recalled fewer unrelated word pairs than did students who did not. Moreover, although students who formed interactive images demonstrated enhanced memory relative to students who did not, interactive imagery did not impact the reactive effect of JOLs. These outcomes are informative for existing theory of JOL reactivity. Specifically, JOLs may only benefit learning of associative information when it has a pre-existing semantic relationship (e.g., related word pairs) and not when that that relationship is created by the learner (e.g., by forming interactive images).
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber E Witherby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Addison L Babineau
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA
| | - Sarah K Tauber
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA
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