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Money NP, Stolze-Rybczynski J, Smith BE, Trninić D, Davis DJ, Fischer MWF. Ascus function: From squirt guns to ooze tubes. Fungal Biol 2023; 127:1491-1504. [PMID: 38097323 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2023.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Unlike the mechanism of ballistospore discharge, which was not solved until the 1980s, the operation of asci as pressurized squirt guns is relatively straightforward and was understood in the nineteenth century. Since then, mycologists have sought to understand how structural adaptations to asci have allowed the ascomycetes to expel spores of different shapes and sizes over distances ranging from a few millimeters to tens of centimeters. These modifications include the use of valves at the tips of asci that maintain ascus pressure and expel spores at the highest speeds, and gelatinous appendages that connect spores after release and create larger projectiles with greater momentum than single spores. Clever experiments in the twentieth century coupled with meticulous microscopic studies led investigators to understand how asci with complicated apical structures worked and mathematical models produced estimates of launch speeds. With the recent application of high-speed video microscopy, these inferences about ascus function have been tested by imaging the motion of spores on a microsecond timescale. These experiments have established that ascospore discharge is the fastest fungal movement and is among the fastest movements in biology. Beginning with the history of the study of asci, this review article explains how asci are pressurized, how spores are released, and how far spores travel after their release. We also consider the efficiency of ascospore discharge relative to the mechanism of ballistospore discharge and examine the way that the squirt gun mechanism has limited the morphological diversity of ascomycete fruit bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Money
- Western Program and Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | | | - B Eugene Smith
- Western Program and Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
| | - Dragana Trninić
- Western Program and Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA
| | - Diana J Davis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mount St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH, 45233, USA
| | - Mark W F Fischer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mount St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH, 45233, USA
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2
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Baral HO, Johnston P, Quijada L, Healy R, Pfister DH, LoBuglio KF, Rodriguez V, Weber E. Cryptic speciation in Orbilia xanthostigma and O. leucostigma (Orbiliomycetes): an aggregate with worldwide distribution. Mycol Prog 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-021-01718-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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3
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Naranjo‐Ortiz MA, Gabaldón T. Fungal evolution: cellular, genomic and metabolic complexity. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:1198-1232. [PMID: 32301582 PMCID: PMC7539958 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The question of how phenotypic and genomic complexity are inter-related and how they are shaped through evolution is a central question in biology that historically has been approached from the perspective of animals and plants. In recent years, however, fungi have emerged as a promising alternative system to address such questions. Key to their ecological success, fungi present a broad and diverse range of phenotypic traits. Fungal cells can adopt many different shapes, often within a single species, providing them with great adaptive potential. Fungal cellular organizations span from unicellular forms to complex, macroscopic multicellularity, with multiple transitions to higher or lower levels of cellular complexity occurring throughout the evolutionary history of fungi. Similarly, fungal genomes are very diverse in their architecture. Deep changes in genome organization can occur very quickly, and these phenomena are known to mediate rapid adaptations to environmental changes. Finally, the biochemical complexity of fungi is huge, particularly with regard to their secondary metabolites, chemical products that mediate many aspects of fungal biology, including ecological interactions. Herein, we explore how the interplay of these cellular, genomic and metabolic traits mediates the emergence of complex phenotypes, and how this complexity is shaped throughout the evolutionary history of Fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Naranjo‐Ortiz
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyDr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona08003Spain
| | - Toni Gabaldón
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyDr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona08003Spain
- Department of Experimental Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF)Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003BarcelonaSpain
- ICREAPg. Lluís Companys 23, 08010BarcelonaSpain
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Naranjo‐Ortiz MA, Gabaldón T. Fungal evolution: diversity, taxonomy and phylogeny of the Fungi. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:2101-2137. [PMID: 31659870 PMCID: PMC6899921 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The fungal kingdom comprises a hyperdiverse clade of heterotrophic eukaryotes characterized by the presence of a chitinous cell wall, the loss of phagotrophic capabilities and cell organizations that range from completely unicellular monopolar organisms to highly complex syncitial filaments that may form macroscopic structures. Fungi emerged as a 'Third Kingdom', embracing organisms that were outside the classical dichotomy of animals versus vegetals. The taxonomy of this group has a turbulent history that is only now starting to be settled with the advent of genomics and phylogenomics. We here review the current status of the phylogeny and taxonomy of fungi, providing an overview of the main defined groups. Based on current knowledge, nine phylum-level clades can be defined: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycota, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. For each group, we discuss their main traits and their diversity, focusing on the evolutionary relationships among the main fungal clades. We also explore the diversity and phylogeny of several groups of uncertain affinities and the main phylogenetic and taxonomical controversies and hypotheses in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Naranjo‐Ortiz
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyDr. Aiguader 88Barcelona08003Spain
| | - Toni Gabaldón
- Bioinformatics and Genomics Programme, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyDr. Aiguader 88Barcelona08003Spain
- Health and Experimental Sciences DepartmentUniversitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF)08003BarcelonaSpain
- ICREAPg. Lluís Companys 2308010BarcelonaSpain
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5
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Abstract
The origin of complex multicellularity was a major transition in evolution and is generally associated with higher genomic complexity. However, some complex multicellular fungi defy this principle, having small genomes that resemble those of unicellular yeasts rather than those of other complex multicellular organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laszlo G Nagy
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, HAS, Szeged, Hungary.
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6
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Hibbett DS, Blackwell M, James TY, Spatafora JW, Taylor JW, Vilgalys R. Phylogenetic taxon definitions for Fungi, Dikarya, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. IMA Fungus 2018; 9:291-298. [PMID: 30622884 PMCID: PMC6317587 DOI: 10.5598/imafungus.2018.09.02.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetic taxon definitions (PTDs) are explicit, phylogeny-based statements that specify clades. PTDs are central to the system of rank-free classification that is governed by the PhyloCode, but they can also be used to clarify the meanings of ranked names. We present PTDs for four major groups: Fungi, Dikarya, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Hibbett
- Biology Department, Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610, USA
| | - Meredith Blackwell
- Department of Biology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 and Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Timothy Y James
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Joseph W Spatafora
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - John W Taylor
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Rytas Vilgalys
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham NC 27708, USA
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7
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Honegger R, Edwards D, Axe L, Strullu-Derrien C. Fertile Prototaxites taiti: a basal ascomycete with inoperculate, polysporous asci lacking croziers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 373:20170146. [PMID: 29254969 PMCID: PMC5745340 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The affinities of Prototaxites have been debated ever since its fossils, some attaining tree-trunk proportions, were discovered in Canadian Lower Devonian rocks in 1859. Putative assignations include conifers, red and brown algae, liverworts and fungi (some lichenised). Detailed anatomical investigation led to the reconstruction of the type species, P. logani, as a giant sporophore (basidioma) of an agaricomycete (= holobasidiomycete), but evidence for its reproduction remained elusive. Tissues associated with P. taiti in the Rhynie chert plus charcoalified fragments from southern Britain are investigated here to describe the reproductive characters and hence affinities of Prototaxites Thin sections and peels (Pragian Rhynie chert, Aberdeenshire) were examined using light and confocal microscopy; Přídolí and Lochkovian charcoalified samples (Welsh Borderland) were liberated from the rock and examined with scanning electron microscopy. Prototaxites taiti possessed a superficial hymenium comprising an epihymenial layer, delicate septate paraphyses, inoperculate polysporic asci lacking croziers and a subhymenial layer composed predominantly of thin-walled hyphae and occasional larger hyphae. Prototaxites taiti combines features of extant Taphrinomycotina (Neolectomycetes lacking croziers) and Pezizomycotina (epihymenial layer secreted by paraphyses) but is not an ancestor of the latter. Brief consideration is given to its nutrition and potential position in the phylogeny of the Ascomycota.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'The Rhynie cherts: our earliest terrestrial ecosystem revisited'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosmarie Honegger
- Institute of Plant and Microbiology, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Dianne Edwards
- School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Lindsey Axe
- School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
The fungal lineage is one of the three large eukaryotic lineages that dominate terrestrial ecosystems. They share a common ancestor with animals in the eukaryotic supergroup Opisthokonta and have a deeper common ancestry with plants, yet several phenotypes, such as morphological, physiological, or nutritional traits, make them unique among all living organisms. This article provides an overview of some of the most important fungal traits, how they evolve, and what major genes and gene families contribute to their development. The traits highlighted here represent just a sample of the characteristics that have evolved in fungi, including polarized multicellular growth, fruiting body development, dimorphism, secondary metabolism, wood decay, and mycorrhizae. However, a great number of other important traits also underlie the evolution of the taxonomically and phenotypically hyperdiverse fungal kingdom, which could fill up a volume on its own. After reviewing the evolution of these six well-studied traits in fungi, we discuss how the recurrent evolution of phenotypic similarity, that is, convergent evolution in the broad sense, has shaped their phylogenetic distribution in extant species.
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McLaughlin DJ, Kumar TKA, Padamsee M, Toome-Heller M, Frieders EM, Aime MC. Structural character evolution in Pucciniomycotina: mitosis, septa, and hyphal branch initiation in twoHelicogloeaspecies. Mycologia 2017; 109:162-181. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2017.1282239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David J. McLaughlin
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, 1445 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - T. K. Arun Kumar
- Department of Botany, The Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College, Calicut, Kerala 673014, India
| | | | - Merje Toome-Heller
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | - Elizabeth M. Frieders
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, 1 University Plaza, Platteville, Wisconsin 53818
| | - M. Catherine Aime
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
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10
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Innovation and constraint leading to complex multicellularity in the Ascomycota. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14444. [PMID: 28176784 PMCID: PMC5309816 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The advent of complex multicellularity (CM) was a pivotal event in the evolution of animals, plants and fungi. In the fungal Ascomycota, CM is based on hyphal filaments and arose in the Pezizomycotina. The genus Neolecta defines an enigma: phylogenetically placed in a related group containing mostly yeasts, Neolecta nevertheless possesses Pezizomycotina-like CM. Here we sequence the Neolecta irregularis genome and identify CM-associated functions by searching for genes conserved in Neolecta and the Pezizomycotina, which are absent or divergent in budding or fission yeasts. This group of 1,050 genes is enriched for functions related to diverse endomembrane systems and their organization. Remarkably, most show evidence for divergence in both yeasts. Using functional genomics, we identify new genes involved in fungal complexification. Together, these data show that rudimentary multicellularity is deeply rooted in the Ascomycota. Extensive parallel gene divergence during simplification and constraint leading to CM suggest a deterministic process where shared modes of cellular organization select for similarly configured organelle- and transport-related machineries. The fungal Ascomycota provide a model phylum to investigate the evolution of complex multicellularity. Here, the authors combine genome sequencing with comparative and functional genomics to identify diverse endomembrane related machineries associated with the gain and loss of fungal complexity.
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11
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Intra- and interspecific diversity of ultrastructural markers in Scedosporium. Fungal Biol 2016; 120:147-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Menkis A, Urbina H, James TY, Rosling A. Archaeorhizomyces borealis sp. nov. and a sequence-based classification of related soil fungal species. Fungal Biol 2014; 118:943-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Treseder KK, Maltz MR, Hawkins BA, Fierer N, Stajich JE, McGuire KL. Evolutionary histories of soil fungi are reflected in their large-scale biogeography. Ecol Lett 2014; 17:1086-93. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen K. Treseder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California Irvine; Irvine CA 92697 USA
| | - Mia R. Maltz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California Irvine; Irvine CA 92697 USA
| | - Bradford A. Hawkins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California Irvine; Irvine CA 92697 USA
| | - Noah Fierer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences; University of Colorado; Boulder CO 80309 USA
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology; University of California Riverside; Riverside CA 92521 USA
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14
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Arun Kumar TK, Blackwell M, Letcher PM, Roberson RW, McLaughlin DJ. Research and teaching with the AFTOL SBD: an informatics resource for fungal subcellular and biochemical data. IMA Fungus 2013; 4:259-63. [PMID: 24563838 PMCID: PMC3905944 DOI: 10.5598/imafungus.2013.04.02.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The Structural and Biochemical Database (SBD), developed as part of the US NSF-funded Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life (AFTOL), is a multi-investigator project. It is a major resource to present and manage morphological and biochemical information on Fungi and serves as a phyloinformatics tool for the scientific community. It also is an important resource for teaching mycology. The database, available at http://aftol.umn.edu, includes new and previously published subcellular data on Fungi, supplemented with images and literature links. Datasets automatically combined in NEXUS format from the site permit independent and combined (with molecular data) phylogenetic analyses. Character lists, a major feature of the site, serve as primary reference documents of subcellular and biochemical characters that distinguish taxa across the major fungal lineages. The character lists illustrated with images and drawings are informative for evolutionary and developmental biologists as well as educators, students and the public. Fungal Subcellular Ontology (FSO), developed as part of this effort is a primary initiative to provide a controlled vocabulary describing subcellular structures unique to Fungi. FSO establishes a full complement of terms that provide an operating ontological framework for the database. Examples are provided for using the database for teaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Arun Kumar
- Department of Botany, The Zamorin's Guruvayurappan College, Calicut, Kerala 673014, India
| | - Meredith Blackwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Peter M Letcher
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Robert W Roberson
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - David J McLaughlin
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108 USA
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