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Jin F, Liu W, Cheng G, Cai S, Yin T, Diao L. The function of decidua natural killer cells in physiology and pathology of pregnancy. Am J Reprod Immunol 2023; 90:e13755. [PMID: 37641369 DOI: 10.1111/aji.13755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of decidual natural killer (dNK) cells in maintaining immune tolerance at the maternal-fetal interface during pregnancy is a significant topic in reproductive health. Immune tolerance is essential for a successful pregnancy and involves a complex immune response involving various immune cells and molecules. DNK cells comprise the largest population of lymphocyte subsets found in the decidua and play important roles in maintaining immune tolerance. These cells exert multiple functions to maintain homeostasis of the decidual microenvironment, including modulation of trophoblast invasion, promotion of fetal development, regulation of endometrial decidualization and spiral artery remodeling. DNK cells can also be divided into different subsets based on their functions as NKtolerant , NKcytotoxic , and NKregulatory cells. However, the relationship between dNK cells function and pregnancy outcomes is complex and poorly understood. In this review, we will focus on the physiological role of dNK cells during pregnancy and highlight the potential role in pathological pregnancies and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Jin
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology of Peri-implantation, Shenzhen Zhongshan Institute for Reproduction and Genetics, Shenzhen Zhongshan Urology Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Reproductive Immunology for Peri-implantation, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Guan Cheng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Institute of translational medicine, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Songchen Cai
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology of Peri-implantation, Shenzhen Zhongshan Institute for Reproduction and Genetics, Shenzhen Zhongshan Urology Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Reproductive Immunology for Peri-implantation, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Tailang Yin
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Lianghui Diao
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology of Peri-implantation, Shenzhen Zhongshan Institute for Reproduction and Genetics, Shenzhen Zhongshan Urology Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Reproductive Immunology for Peri-implantation, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
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Baines KJ, Klausner MS, Patterson VS, Renaud SJ. Interleukin-15 deficient rats have reduced osteopontin at the maternal-fetal interface. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1079164. [PMID: 37152295 PMCID: PMC10157472 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1079164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Uterine Natural Killer (NK) cells are the predominant immune cells within the decidua during early pregnancy. These cells are thought to regulate aspects of decidualization and placental development, but their functions remain poorly characterized, especially in species with deeply invading trophoblasts such as humans and rats. Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a cytokine required for NK cell development and survival. IL-15 mutant (IL15Δ/Δ) rats lack NK cells and exhibit altered placental development with precocious trophoblast invasion. In this study, we profiled gene expression differences between wild-type and IL15Δ/Δ implantation sites to reveal candidate factors produced by uterine NK cells that may regulate placentation and trophoblast invasion. Methods: Clariom S gene expression profiling was performed using implantation sites collected from pregnant wild-type and IL15Δ/Δ rats on gestational day 9.5. Levels and localization of perforin and osteopontin in implantation sites from wild-type and IL15Δ/Δ rats were further analyzed. The effect of osteopontin on the invasive capacity of rat trophoblasts was evaluated using Matrigel-based Transwell assays. Results: There were 257 genes differentially expressed between wild-type and IL15Δ/Δ implantation sites on gestational day 9.5, including decreased expression of various NK cell markers in IL15Δ/Δ rats, as well as Spp1, which encodes osteopontin. In wild-type rats, osteopontin was present within the decidua basalis and adjacent to the primitive placenta, and osteopontin colocalized with the NK cell marker perforin. Osteopontin was also detectable in uterine glands. Conversely, in IL15Δ/Δ rats, osteopontin and perforin were not readily detectable in the decidua despite robust osteopontin levels in uterine glands. Neutralization of osteopontin in media conditioned by cells isolated from the decidua decreased invasion of rat trophoblasts, suggesting that reduced levels of osteopontin are unlikely to account for the precocious trophoblast invasion in IL15Δ/Δ rats. Conclusion: Osteopontin is expressed by NK cells at the maternal-fetal interface in rats and may contribute to modulation of trophoblast invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J. Baines
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Michelle S. Klausner
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Violet S. Patterson
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Stephen J. Renaud
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- Children’s Health Research Institute, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Stephen J. Renaud,
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Zhu N, Yang X, Liu Q, Chen Y, Wang X, Li H, Gao H. “Iron triangle” of regulating the uterine microecology: Endometrial microbiota, immunity and endometrium. Front Immunol 2022; 13:928475. [PMID: 36016947 PMCID: PMC9396262 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.928475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The uterus is the core place for breeding new life. The balance and imbalance of uterine microecology can directly affect or even dominate the female reproductive health. Emerging data demonstrate that endometrial microbiota, endometrium and immunity play an irreplaceable role in regulating uterine microecology, forming a dynamic iron triangle relationship. Up to nowadays, it remains unclear how the three factors affect and interact with each other, which is also a frontier topic in the emerging field of reproductive tract microecology. From this new perspective, we aim to clarify the relationship and mechanism of the interaction of these three factors, especially their pairwise interactions. Finally, the limitations and future perspectives of the current studies are summarized. In general, these three factors have a dynamic relationship of mutual dependence, promotion and restriction under the physiological or pathological conditions of uterus, among which the regulatory mechanism of microbiota and immunity plays a role of bridge. These findings can provide new insights and measures for the regulation of uterine microecology, the prevention and treatment of endometrial diseases, and the further multi-disciplinary integration between microbiology, immunology and reproductive medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Zhu
- Department of Nursing, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
- School of Nursing, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Xuyan Yang
- Department of Nursing, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Qiao Liu
- School of Nursing, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Yahui Chen
- School of Nursing, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Xiaolan Wang
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Huanhuan Li
- Department of Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Hong Gao
- Department of Nursing, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
- *Correspondence: Hong Gao,
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Kanter JR, Mani S, Gordon SM, Mainigi M. Uterine natural killer cell biology and role in early pregnancy establishment and outcomes. F&S REVIEWS 2021; 2:265-286. [PMID: 35756138 PMCID: PMC9232176 DOI: 10.1016/j.xfnr.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Objective While immune cells were originally thought to only play a role in maternal tolerance of the semiallogenic fetus, an active role in pregnancy establishment is becoming increasingly apparent. Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells are of specific interest because of their cyclic increase in number during the window of implantation. As a distinct entity from their peripheral blood counterparts, understanding the biology and function of uNK cells will provide the framework for understanding their role in early pregnancy establishment and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Evidence Review This review discusses unique uNK cell characteristics and presents clinical implications resulting from their dysfunction. We also systematically present existing knowledge about uNK cell function in three processes critical for successful human embryo implantation and placentation: stromal cell decidualization, spiral artery remodeling, and extravillous trophoblast invasion. Finally, we review the features of uNK cells that could help guide future investigations. Results It is clear the uNK cells are intimately involved in multiple facets of early pregnancy. This is accomplished directly, through the secretion of factors that regulate stromal cells and trophoblast function; and indirectly, via interaction with other maternal cell types present at the maternal-fetal interface. Current work also suggests that uNK cells are a heterogenous population, with subsets that potentially accomplish different functions. Conclusion Establishment of pregnancy through successful embryo implantation and placentation requires crosstalk between multiple maternal cell types and invading fetal trophoblast cells. Defects in this process have been associated with multiple adverse perinatal outcomes including hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, placenta accreta, and recurrent miscarriage though the mechanism underlying development of these defects remain unclear. Abnormalities in NK cell number and function which would disrupt physiological maternal-fetal crosstalk, could play a critical role in abnormal implantation and placentation. It is therefore imperative to dissect the unique physiological role of uNK cells in pregnancy and use this knowledge to inform clinical practice by determining how uNK cell dysfunction could lead to reproductive failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R. Kanter
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sneha Mani
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Scott M. Gordon
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Monica Mainigi
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Bodke VV, Burdette JE. Advancements in Microfluidic Systems for the Study of Female Reproductive Biology. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6225875. [PMID: 33852726 PMCID: PMC8571709 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The female reproductive tract is a highly complex physiological system that consists of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina. An enhanced understanding of the molecular, cellular, and genetic mechanisms of the tract will allow for the development of more effective assisted reproductive technologies, therapeutics, and screening strategies for female specific disorders. Traditional 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional static culture systems may not always reflect the cellular and physical contexts or physicochemical microenvironment necessary to understand the dynamic exchange that is crucial for the functioning of the reproductive system. Microfluidic systems present a unique opportunity to study the female reproductive tract, as these systems recapitulate the multicellular architecture, contacts between different tissues, and microenvironmental cues that largely influence cell structure, function, behavior, and growth. This review discusses examples, challenges, and benefits of using microfluidic systems to model ovaries, fallopian tubes, endometrium, and placenta. Additionally, this review also briefly discusses the use of these systems in studying the effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals and diseases such as ovarian cancer, preeclampsia, and polycystic ovarian syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vedant V Bodke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago 60607, USA
| | - Joanna E Burdette
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago 60607, USA
- Correspondence: Joanna E. Burdette, PhD, University of Illinois at Chicago, 900 S. Ashland Ave, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
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Nawroth J, Rogal J, Weiss M, Brucker SY, Loskill P. Organ-on-a-Chip Systems for Women's Health Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7. [PMID: 28985032 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Biomedical research, for a long time, has paid little attention to the influence of sex in many areas of study, ranging from molecular and cellular biology to animal models and clinical studies on human subjects. Many studies solely rely on male cells/tissues/animals/humans, although there are profound differences in male and female physiology, which can significantly impact disease mechanisms, toxicity of compounds, and efficacy of pharmaceuticals. In vitro systems have been traditionally very limited in their capacity to recapitulate female-specific physiology and anatomy such as dynamic sex-hormone levels and the complex interdependencies of female reproductive tract organs. However, the advent of microphysiological organ-on-a-chip systems, which attempt to recreate the 3D structure and function of human organs, now gives researchers the opportunity to integrate cells and tissues from a variety of individuals. Moreover, adding a dynamic flow environment allows mimicking endocrine signaling during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, as well as providing a controlled microfluidic environment for pharmacokinetic modeling. This review gives an introduction into preclinical and clinical research on women's health and discusses where organ-on-a-chip systems are already utilized or have the potential to deliver new insights and enable entirely new types of studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia Rogal
- Department of Cell and Tissue Engineering; Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB; Nobelstrasse 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Martin Weiss
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics; University Medicine Tübingen; Calwerstrasse 7 72076 Tübingen Germany
| | - Sara Y. Brucker
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics; University Medicine Tübingen; Calwerstrasse 7 72076 Tübingen Germany
| | - Peter Loskill
- Department of Cell and Tissue Engineering; Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB; Nobelstrasse 12 70569 Stuttgart Germany
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Xiao S, Coppeta JR, Rogers HB, Isenberg BC, Zhu J, Olalekan SA, McKinnon KE, Dokic D, Rashedi AS, Haisenleder DJ, Malpani SS, Arnold-Murray CA, Chen K, Jiang M, Bai L, Nguyen CT, Zhang J, Laronda MM, Hope TJ, Maniar KP, Pavone ME, Avram MJ, Sefton EC, Getsios S, Burdette JE, Kim JJ, Borenstein JT, Woodruff TK. A microfluidic culture model of the human reproductive tract and 28-day menstrual cycle. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14584. [PMID: 28350383 PMCID: PMC5379057 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocrine system dynamically controls tissue differentiation and homeostasis, but has not been studied using dynamic tissue culture paradigms. Here we show that a microfluidic system supports murine ovarian follicles to produce the human 28-day menstrual cycle hormone profile, which controls human female reproductive tract and peripheral tissue dynamics in single, dual and multiple unit microfluidic platforms (Solo-MFP, Duet-MFP and Quintet-MPF, respectively). These systems simulate the in vivo female reproductive tract and the endocrine loops between organ modules for the ovary, fallopian tube, uterus, cervix and liver, with a sustained circulating flow between all tissues. The reproductive tract tissues and peripheral organs integrated into a microfluidic platform, termed EVATAR, represents a powerful new in vitro tool that allows organ–organ integration of hormonal signalling as a phenocopy of menstrual cycle and pregnancy-like endocrine loops and has great potential to be used in drug discovery and toxicology studies. The female reproductive tract constitutes the ovary, fallopian tubes, uterus, and cervix, but it is challenging to engineer this system in vitro. Here, the authors develop a microfluidic device (EVATAR) with reproductive tract and peripheral tissues to replicate hormone release of a 28-day menstrual cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Xiao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Jonathan R Coppeta
- The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Hunter B Rogers
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Brett C Isenberg
- The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Susan A Olalekan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Kelly E McKinnon
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Danijela Dokic
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Alexandra S Rashedi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Daniel J Haisenleder
- Ligand Assay and Analysis Core, Center for Research in Reproduction, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA
| | - Saurabh S Malpani
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Chanel A Arnold-Murray
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Kuanwei Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Mingyang Jiang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Lu Bai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Catherine T Nguyen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Jiyang Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Monica M Laronda
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Thomas J Hope
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Kruti P Maniar
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Mary Ellen Pavone
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Michael J Avram
- Department of Anesthesiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Sefton
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Spiro Getsios
- Department of Dermatology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Joanna E Burdette
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - J Julie Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | | | - Teresa K Woodruff
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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Evans J, Salamonsen LA, Winship A, Menkhorst E, Nie G, Gargett CE, Dimitriadis E. Fertile ground: human endometrial programming and lessons in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2016; 12:654-667. [PMID: 27448058 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2016.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The human endometrium is a highly dynamic tissue that is cyclically shed, repaired, regenerated and remodelled, primarily under the orchestration of oestrogen and progesterone, in preparation for embryo implantation. Humans are among the very few species that menstruate and that, consequently, are equipped with unique cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling these cyclic processes. Many reproductive pathologies are specific to menstruating species, and studies in animal models rarely translate to humans. Abnormal remodelling and regeneration of the human endometrium leads to a range of reproductive complications. Furthermore, the processes regulating endometrial remodelling and implantation, including those controlling hormonal impact, breakdown and repair, stem/progenitor cell activation, inflammation and cell invasion have broad applications to other fields. This Review presents current knowledge regarding the normal and abnormal function of the human endometrium. The development of biomarkers for prediction of uterine diseases and pregnancy disorders and future avenues of investigation to improve fertility and enhance endometrial function are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jemma Evans
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Lois A Salamonsen
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Amy Winship
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Ellen Menkhorst
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Guiying Nie
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
| | - Caroline E Gargett
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
- The Ritchie Centre, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
| | - Eva Dimitriadis
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, 3168, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
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