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Shrestha N, Rout-Pitt N, McCarron A, Jackson CA, Bulmer AC, McAinch AJ, Donnelley M, Parsons DW, Hryciw DH. Changes in Essential Fatty Acids and Ileal Genes Associated with Metabolizing Enzymes and Fatty Acid Transporters in Rodent Models of Cystic Fibrosis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087194. [PMID: 37108362 PMCID: PMC10138779 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF), the result of mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), causes essential fatty acid deficiency. The aim of this study was to characterize fatty acid handling in two rodent models of CF; one strain which harbors the loss of phenylalanine at position 508 (Phe508del) in CFTR and the other lacks functional CFTR (510X). Fatty acid concentrations were determined using gas chromatography in serum from Phe508del and 510X rats. The relative expression of genes responsible for fatty acid transport and metabolism were quantified using real-time PCR. Ileal tissue morphology was assessed histologically. There was an age-dependent decrease in eicosapentaenoic acid and the linoleic acid:α-linolenic acid ratio, a genotype-dependent decrease in docosapentaenoic acid (n-3) and an increase in the arachidonic acid:docosahexaenoic acid ratio in Phe508del rat serum, which was not observed in 510X rats. In the ileum, Cftr mRNA was increased in Phe508del rats but decreased in 510X rats. Further, Elvol2, Slc27a1, Slc27a2 and Got2 mRNA were increased in Phe508del rats only. As assessed by Sirius Red staining, collagen was increased in Phe508del and 510X ileum. Thus, CF rat models exhibit alterations in the concentration of circulating fatty acids, which may be due to altered transport and metabolism, in addition to fibrosis and microscopic structural changes in the ileum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirajan Shrestha
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD 4215, Australia
| | - Nathan Rout-Pitt
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, 72 King William Road, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
| | - Alexandra McCarron
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, 72 King William Road, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
| | - Courtney A Jackson
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4215, Australia
| | - Andrew C Bulmer
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD 4215, Australia
| | - Andrew J McAinch
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
- Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), Victoria University, St. Albans, VIC 3021, Australia
| | - Martin Donnelley
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, 72 King William Road, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4215, Australia
| | - David W Parsons
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, 72 King William Road, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4215, Australia
| | - Deanne H Hryciw
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4215, Australia
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
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Uc A, Strandvik B, Yao J, Liu X, Yi Y, Sun X, Welti R, Engelhardt J, Norris A. The fatty acid imbalance of cystic fibrosis exists at birth independent of feeding in pig and ferret models. Clin Sci (Lond) 2022; 136:1773-1791. [PMID: 36416119 PMCID: PMC9747517 DOI: 10.1042/cs20220450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Persons with cystic fibrosis (CF) exhibit a unique alteration of fatty acid composition, marked especially among polyunsaturates by relative deficiency of linoleic acid and excess of Mead acid. Relative deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid is variably found. However, the initial development of these abnormalities is not understood. We examined fatty acid composition in young CF ferrets and pigs, finding abnormalities from the day of birth onward including relative deficiency of linoleic acid in both species. Fatty acid composition abnormalities were present in both liver and serum phospholipids of newborn CF piglets even prior to feeding, including reduced linoleic acid and increased Mead acid. Serum fatty acid composition evolved over the first weeks of life in both non-CF and CF ferrets, though differences between CF and non-CF persisted. Although red blood cell phospholipid fatty acid composition was normal in newborn animals, it became perturbed in juvenile CF ferrets including relative deficiencies of linoleic and docosahexaenoic acids and excess of Mead acid. In summary, fatty acid composition abnormalities in CF pigs and ferrets exist from a young age including at birth independent of feeding and overlap extensively with the abnormalities found in humans with CF. That the abnormalities exist prior to feeding implies that dietary measures alone will not address the mechanisms of imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliye Uc
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Birgitta Strandvik
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet NEO, Flemingsberg, Stockholm 14183, Sweden
| | - Jianrong Yao
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Yaling Yi
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Xingshen Sun
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Ruth Welti
- Kansas Lipidomics Research Center, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - John F. Engelhardt
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
| | - Andrew W. Norris
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A
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Hryciw DH, Jackson CA, Shrestha N, Parsons D, Donnelley M, McAinch AJ. Role for animal models in understanding essential fatty acid deficiency in cystic fibrosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:7991-7999. [PMID: 34741185 PMCID: PMC11072998 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-04014-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Essential fatty acid deficiency has been observed in most patients with Cystic Fibrosis (CF); however, pancreatic supplementation does not restore the deficiency, suggesting a different pathology independent of the pancreas. At this time, the underlying pathological mechanisms are largely unknown. Essential fatty acids are obtained from the diet and processed by organs including the liver and intestine, two organs significantly impacted by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (Cftr). There are several CF animal models in a variety of species that have been developed to investigate molecular mechanisms associated with the CF phenotype. Specifically, global and systemic mutations in Cftr which mimic genotypic changes identified in CF patients have been generated in mice, rats, sheep, pigs and ferrets. These mutations produce CFTR proteins with a gating defect, trafficking defect, or an absent or inactive CFTR channel. Essential fatty acids are critical to CFTR function, with a bidirectional relationship between CFTR and essential fatty acids proposed. Currently, there are limited analyses on the essential fatty acid status in most of these animal models. Of interest, in the mouse model, essential fatty acid status is dependent on the genotype and resultant phenotype of the mouse. Future investigations should identify an optimal animal model that has most of the phenotypic changes associated with CF including the essential fatty acid deficiencies, which can be used in the development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanne H Hryciw
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Courtney A Jackson
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Nirajan Shrestha
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - David Parsons
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Martin Donnelley
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Andrew J McAinch
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), Victoria University, St. Albans, VIC, Australia
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Garić D, Dumut DC, Shah J, De Sanctis JB, Radzioch D. The role of essential fatty acids in cystic fibrosis and normalizing effect of fenretinide. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:4255-4267. [PMID: 32394023 PMCID: PMC11105061 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03530-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common autosomal-recessive disease in Caucasians caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane regulator (CFTR) gene. Patients are usually diagnosed in infancy and are burdened with extensive medical treatments throughout their lives. One of the first documented biochemical defects in CF, which predates the cloning of CFTR gene for almost three decades, is an imbalance in the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The principal hallmarks of this imbalance are increased levels of arachidonic acid and decreased levels of docosahexaenoic acids (DHA) in CF. This pro-inflammatory profile of PUFAs is an important component of sterile inflammation in CF, which is known to be detrimental, rather than protective for the patients. Despite decades of intensive research, the mechanistic basis of this phenomenon remains unclear. In this review we summarized the current knowledge on the biochemistry of PUFAs, with a focus on the metabolism of AA and DHA in CF. Finally, a synthetic retinoid called fenretinide (N-(4-hydroxy-phenyl) retinamide) was shown to be able to correct the pro-inflammatory imbalance of PUFAs in CF. Therefore, its pharmacological actions and clinical potential are briefly discussed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dušan Garić
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, McGill University Health Center, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, Room EM3-3211, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Daciana Catalina Dumut
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, McGill University Health Center, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, Room EM3-3211, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Juhi Shah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, McGill University Health Center, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, Room EM3-3211, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Juan Bautista De Sanctis
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Danuta Radzioch
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, McGill University Health Center, 1001 Decarie Boulevard, Room EM3-3211, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada.
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Portal C, Gouyer V, Léonard R, Husson MO, Gottrand F, Desseyn JL. Long-term dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids show benefits to the lungs of Cftr F508del mice. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197808. [PMID: 29856782 PMCID: PMC5983462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The pro-inflammatory status of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients promotes pulmonary colonization with opportunist and pathogenic bacteria, which is favored by a sticky mucus. Oral supplementation with (n-3) long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) has shown anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the positive effects of a long-term diet enriched in (n-3) LC-PUFA on the lungs of Cftr F508del mice. Materials and methods Breeding CftrΔF508del/+ mice received a control diet or a diet enriched in (n-3) LC-PUFA for 5 weeks before mating, gestation and lactation. After weaning, the offspring were given the same diet as their mother until post-natal day 60. The effects of (n-3) LC-PUFA supplementation on the lungs were evaluated in homozygous Cftr F508del mice and their wild-type littermates after acute lung inflammation induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide (LPS) inhalation. Results (n-3) LC-PUFA enrichment of mothers contributes to enrichment of mammary milk and cell membrane of suckling pups. Cftr F508del mice exhibited growth retardation and lung damage with collapsed alveoli, hyperplasia of bronchial epithelial cells and inflammatory cell infiltration. The (n-3) LC-PUFA diet corrected the growth delay of Cftr F508del mice and decreased hyperplasia of bronchial epithelial cells. Besides decreasing metaplasia of Club cells after LPS inhalation, (n-3) LC-PUFA modulated lung inflammation and restricted lung damage. Conclusion Long-term (n-3) LC-PUFA supplementation shows moderate benefits to the lungs of Cftr F508del mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Portal
- Inserm, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, LIRIC – UMR 995, Lille, France
| | - Valérie Gouyer
- Inserm, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, LIRIC – UMR 995, Lille, France
| | - Renaud Léonard
- CNRS, Université de Lille, UGSF – UMR 8576, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
| | | | - Frédéric Gottrand
- Inserm, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, LIRIC – UMR 995, Lille, France
| | - Jean-Luc Desseyn
- Inserm, Université de Lille, CHU Lille, LIRIC – UMR 995, Lille, France
- * E-mail:
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6
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Strandvik B, O´ Neal WK, Ali MA, Hammar U. Low linoleic and high docosahexaenoic acids in a severe phenotype of transgenic cystic fibrosis mice. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2018; 243:496-503. [PMID: 29513100 PMCID: PMC5882031 DOI: 10.1177/1535370218758605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Low linoleic acid concentration is a common finding in patients with cystic fibrosis and associated with severe clinical phenotype. Low docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids are more inconsistently found in patients, but arachidonic/docosahexaenoic ratio is usually high. In animal models with cftr mutations or KO animals for the cftr gene, linoleic acid deficiency has not been consistently reported and some report docosahexaenoic deficiency as the major fatty acid abnormality. We hereby describe fatty acid profile in a severe clinical cystic fibrosis phenotype in mice with a duplication of exon 3 generated in the cystic fibrosis gene of C57B1/6J mice ( cftrm1Bay allele). In 43/50 animals, plasma phospholipid fatty acids were repeatedly analyzed (mean three times/animal) covering ages between 7 and 235 days. Linoleic acid concentrations were significantly lower in cftr-/- mice compared to heterozygotes ( P = 0.03) and wild type mice ( P < 0.001). Females had significantly lower linoleic acid than males, not related to age. Arachidonic acid did not differ but docosahexaenoic acid was higher in cftr-/- than in wild type mice ( P < 0.001). The arachidonic/docosahexaenoic acid ratio did not differ but arachidonic/linoleic acid ratio was higher in cftr-/- mice compared to wild type mice ( P = 0.007). Similar to clinical studies, type of mutation is important for lipid abnormality with low linoleic acid most consistently found in the animals. Rodents differ in metabolism by synthesizing docosahexaenoic acid more efficiently comparing to humans, suggesting greater influence by diet. Precaution seems important when comparing animal and humans. Impact statement In translational research, animal models are important to investigate the effect of genetic mutations in specific diseases and their metabolism. Special attention has to be given to differences in physiology and metabolism between species and humans, which otherwise can hazard the conclusions. Our work illustrates that the different synthesis capacity in mice and humans for DHA would explain different results in different models for cystic fibrosis and different influences of diets. To avoid disappointing clinical results, these facts have to be considered before extensive clinical studies are started based on results from single animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitta Strandvik
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet,
Huddinge, Stockholm 14183, Sweden
| | - Wanda K O´ Neal
- Department of Marsico, Lung Institute/Cystic Fibrosis Center,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mohamed A Ali
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet,
Huddinge, Stockholm 14183, Sweden
| | - Ulf Hammar
- Department of Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm
17177, Sweden
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Chang M, Zhang T, Han X, Tang Q, Yanagita T, Xu J, Xue C, Wang Y. Comparative Analysis of EPA/DHA-PL Forage and Liposomes in Orotic Acid-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Rats and Their Related Mechanisms. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:1408-1418. [PMID: 29345914 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b05173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become one predictive factor of death from various illnesses. The present study was to comparatively investigate the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid-enriched and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched phospholipids forage (EPA-PL and DHA-PL) and liposomes (lipo-EPA and lipo-DHA) on NAFLD and demonstrate the possible protective mechanisms involved. The additive doses of EPA-PL and DHA-PL in all treatment groups were 1% of total diets, respectively. The results showed that Lipo-EPA could significantly improve hepatic function by down-regulating orotic acid-induced serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels by 55.6% and 34.2%, respectively (p < 0.01). Moreover, lipo-EPA exhibited excellent inhibition on the mRNA expression of SREBP-1c and FAS at the values of 0.454 ± 0.09 (p < 0.01) and 0.523 ± 0.08 (p < 0.01), respectively, thus ameliorating OA-induced NAFLD. Meanwhile, lipo-EPA could significantly suppress the SREBP-2 and HMGR levels (31.4% and 66.7%, p < 0.05, respectively). In addition, EPA-PL and lipo-DHA could also significantly suppress hepatic lipid accumulation mainly by enhancement of hepatic lipolysis and cholesterol efflux. Furthermore, DHA-PL played a certain role in inhibiting hepatic lipogenesis and accelerating cholesterol efflux. The results obtained in this work might contribute to the understanding of the biological activities of EPA/DHA-PL and liposomes and further investigation on its potential application values for food supplements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengru Chang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
| | - Tiantian Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
| | - Xiuqing Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
| | - Qingjuan Tang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
| | - Teruyoshi Yanagita
- Laboratory of Nutrition Biochemistry, Department of Applied Biochemistry and Food Science, Saga University , Saga 840-8502, Japan
| | - Jie Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
| | - Changhu Xue
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology , Qingdao, Shandong Province PR China
| | - Yuming Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China , No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province266003, PR China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology , Qingdao, Shandong Province PR China
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common lethal genetic disorder in the Caucasian people. It is due to the mutation of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene located on the long arm of the chromosome 7, which encodes for CFTR protein. The latter, an adenosine triphosphate binding cassette, is a transmembrane chloride channel that is also involved in glutathione transport. As glutathione/glutathione disulfide constitutes the most important pool of cellular redox systems, CFTR defects could thus disrupt the intracellular redox balance. Resulting multisystemic diseases are essentially characterized by a chronic respiratory failure, a pancreatic insufficiency, an essential fatty acid deficiency (EFAD), and inadequate levels of antioxidant vitamins. RECENT ADVANCES The pathophysiology of CF is complex; however, several mechanisms are proposed, including oxidative stress (OxS) whose implication is recognized and has been clearly demonstrated in CF airways. CRITICAL ISSUES Little is known about OxS intrinsic triggers and its own involvement in intestinal lipid disorders. Despite the regular administration of pancreatic supplements, high-fat high-calorie diets, and antioxidant fat-soluble vitamins, there is a persistence of steatorrhea, EFAD, and harmful OxS. Intriguingly, several trials with elevated doses of antioxidant vitamins have not yielded significant improvements. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The main sources and self-maintenance of OxS in CF should be clarified to improve treatment of patients. Therefore, this review will discuss the potential sources and study the mechanisms of OxS in the intestine, known to develop various complications, and its involvement in intestinal lipid disorders in CF patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Laure Kleme
- 1 Research Centre, CHU Ste-Justine, Université de Montréal , Montréal, Quebec, Canada
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9
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Polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation reverses cystic fibrosis-related fatty acid abnormalities in CFTR−/− mice by suppressing fatty acid desaturases. J Nutr Biochem 2015; 26:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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10
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Nordgren TM, Friemel TD, Heires AJ, Poole JA, Wyatt TA, Romberger DJ. The omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid attenuates organic dust-induced airway inflammation. Nutrients 2014; 6:5434-52. [PMID: 25436433 PMCID: PMC4276977 DOI: 10.3390/nu6125434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Workers exposed to organic dusts from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are at risk for developing airway inflammatory diseases. Available preventative and therapeutic measures for alleviating dust-induced lung disease are inadequate. Because omega-3 fatty acids can mitigate inflammatory processes, we aimed to determine whether nutritional supplementation with the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) could reduce the airway inflammatory consequences of exposures to organic dust. Aqueous extracts of organic dusts from swine CAFOs (ODE) were utilized. In DHA-pretreated human bronchial epithelial cells, lung fibroblasts, monocyte cell cultures, and precision-cut murine lung slices, we found that DHA pretreatment dose-dependently decreased ODE-induced inflammatory cytokine production. To determine the in vivo significance of DHA, C57BL/6 mice were orally administered DHA for seven days prior to treatment with intranasal ODE or saline inhalations. Animals treated with 2 mg DHA demonstrated significant reductions in ODE-induced bronchial alveolar lavage neutrophil influx and pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine production compared to mice exposed to ODE alone. Collectively, these data demonstrate that DHA affects several lung cells to reduce the airway inflammatory response to organic dust exposures. Dietary supplementation with DHA may be an effective therapeutic strategy to reduce the airway inflammatory consequences in individuals exposed to agriculture dust environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara M Nordgren
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
| | - Taylor D Friemel
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
| | - Art J Heires
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
| | - Jill A Poole
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
| | - Todd A Wyatt
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
| | - Debra J Romberger
- Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Division, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
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11
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Digestive system dysfunction in cystic fibrosis: challenges for nutrition therapy. Dig Liver Dis 2014; 46:865-74. [PMID: 25053610 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2014.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis can affect food digestion and nutrient absorption. The underlying mutation of the cystic fibrosis trans-membrane regulator gene depletes functional cystic fibrosis trans-membrane regulator on the surface of epithelial cells lining the digestive tract and associated organs, where Cl(-) secretion and subsequently secretion of water and other ions are impaired. This alters pH and dehydrates secretions that precipitate and obstruct the lumen, causing inflammation and the eventual degradation of the pancreas, liver, gallbladder and intestine. Associated conditions include exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, impaired bicarbonate and bile acid secretion and aberrant mucus formation, commonly leading to maldigestion and malabsorption, particularly of fat and fat-soluble vitamins. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy is used to address this insufficiency. The susceptibility of pancreatic lipase to acidic and enzymatic inactivation and decreased bile availability often impedes its efficacy. Brush border digestive enzyme activity and intestinal uptake of certain disaccharides and amino acids await clarification. Other complications that may contribute to maldigestion/malabsorption include small intestine bacterial overgrowth, enteric circular muscle dysfunction, abnormal intestinal mucus, and intestinal inflammation. However, there is some evidence that gastric digestive enzymes, colonic microflora, correction of fatty acid abnormalities using dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and emerging intestinal biomarkers can complement nutrition management in cystic fibrosis.
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Seegmiller AC. Abnormal unsaturated fatty acid metabolism in cystic fibrosis: biochemical mechanisms and clinical implications. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:16083-99. [PMID: 25216340 PMCID: PMC4200767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms150916083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited multi-organ disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene. Patients with this disease exhibit characteristic abnormalities in the levels of unsaturated fatty acids in blood and tissue. Recent studies have uncovered an underlying biochemical mechanism for some of these changes, namely increased expression and activity of fatty acid desaturases. Among other effects, this drives metabolism of linoeate to arachidonate. Increased desaturase expression appears to be linked to cystic fibrosis mutations via stimulation of the AMP-activated protein kinase in the absence of functional CFTR protein. There is evidence that these abnormalities may contribute to disease pathophysiology by increasing production of eicosanoids, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, of which arachidonate is a key substrate. Understanding these underlying mechanisms provides key insights that could potentially impact the diagnosis, clinical monitoring, nutrition, and therapy of patients suffering from this deadly disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Seegmiller
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 4918B TVC, 1301 Medical Center Dr., Nashville, TN 37027, USA.
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Umunakwe OC, Seegmiller AC. Abnormal n-6 fatty acid metabolism in cystic fibrosis is caused by activation of AMP-activated protein kinase. J Lipid Res 2014; 55:1489-97. [PMID: 24859760 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m050369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients and model systems exhibit consistent abnormalities in PUFA metabolism, including increased metabolism of linoleate to arachidonate. Recent studies have connected these abnormalities to increased expression and activity of the Δ6- and Δ5-desaturase enzymes. However, the mechanism connecting these changes to the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) mutations responsible for CF is unknown. This study tests the hypothesis that increased activity of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), previously described in CF bronchial epithelial cells, causes these changes in fatty acid metabolism by driving desaturase expression. Using CF bronchial epithelial cell culture models, we confirm elevated activity of AMPK in CF cells and show that it is due to increased phosphorylation of AMPK by Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase β (CaMKKβ). We also show that inhibition of AMPK or CaMKKβ reduces desaturase expression and reverses the metabolic alterations seen in CF cells. These results signify a novel AMPK-dependent mechanism linking the genetic defect in CF to alterations in PUFA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Obi C Umunakwe
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
| | - Adam C Seegmiller
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
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14
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Lung inflammation in cystic fibrosis: pathogenesis and novel therapies. Clin Biochem 2013; 47:539-46. [PMID: 24380764 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2013.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Despite remarkable progress following the identification of the causing gene, the final outcome of cystic fibrosis (CF) remains determined mainly by the progressive reduction of lung function. Inflammation of the airways is one of the key elements of the pathogenesis of the disease: it is responsible for the destruction of lung architecture, resulting in progressive loss of respiratory function. Bronchial infection induces an intense inflammatory reaction characterized by a massive invasion of neutrophils, the properties of which seems altered in CF. Moreover, the inflammatory process is also marked by a profuse release of soluble pro-inflammatory mediators, such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and IL-8 cytokines. In contrast, release of the anti-inflammatory mediator IL-10 is reduced, thus reflecting a pro-/anti-inflammatory imbalance. The inflammation/infection pair seems hard to dissociate, and the origin of the baneful consequences of the persisting excessive inflammatory responses remains to be cleared up: does inflammation follow or rather precede infection? Recent data suggest that uncontrolled inflammation is constitutive in CF. Countering it at early stages of the disease in order to prevent irretrievable damages in lungs remains a major priority in treating patients with CF. In this review, we discuss the usefulness and limitations of mouse models of CF to study the pathogenesis of human lung inflammatory disease, and the development of new potential strategies to reduce the inflammatory burden in the airways.
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Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) ameliorates paraquat-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats possibly through up-regulation of Smad 7 and SnoN. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 57:330-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 03/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Katrangi W, Lawrenz J, Seegmiller AC, Laposata M. Interactions of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids in the development of fatty acid alterations in cystic fibrosis. Lipids 2013; 48:333-42. [PMID: 23440519 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-013-3768-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) exhibit characteristic polyunsaturated fatty acid abnormalities, including low linoleic acid and high arachidonic acid levels that are thought to contribute to the pathophysiology of this disease. Recent studies indicate that changes in fatty acid metabolism are responsible for these abnormalities. This study examines the role of fatty acid substrate concentrations in the development of these alterations in a cultured cell model of CF. By incubating cells with varying concentrations of exogenous fatty acids, it shows that increasing the concentration of substrates from the parallel n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid pathways (linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, respectively) not only increases formation of the products in that pathway, but also reduces metabolism in the parallel pathway. In particular, we demonstrate that high levels of linoleic acid and low levels of alpha-linolenic acid are required to observe the typical fatty acid alterations of cystic fibrosis. These results shed light on the mechanisms of fatty acid metabolic abnormalities in cystic fibrosis. They also have implications for the nutritional therapy of CF, highlighting the importance of specific fatty acid content, and in understanding the anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waddah Katrangi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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Lavecchia T, Rea G, Antonacci A, Giardi MT. Healthy and adverse effects of plant-derived functional metabolites: the need of revealing their content and bioactivity in a complex food matrix. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2013; 53:198-213. [PMID: 23072533 PMCID: PMC3662084 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.520829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, both food quality and its effect on human health have become a fundamental issue all over the world. As a consequence of this new and increased awareness, American, European, and Asian policymakers have strongly encouraged the research programs on food quality and safety thematic. Attempts to improve human health and to satisfy people's desire for healthcare without intake of pharmaceuticals, has led the food industry to focus attention on functional or nutraceutical food. For a long time, compounds with nutraceutical activity have been produced chemically, but the new demands for a sustainable life have gradually led the food industry to move towards natural compounds, mainly those derived from plants. Many phytochemicals are known to promote good health, but, sometimes, undesirable effects are also reported. Furthermore, several products present on the market show few benefits and sometimes even the reverse - unhealthy effects; the evidence of efficacy is often unconvincing and epidemiological studies are necessary to prove the truth of their claims. Therefore, there is a need for reliable analytical control systems to measure the bioactivity, content, and quality of these additives in the complex food matrix. This review describes the most widespread nutraceutics and an analytical control of the same using recently developed biosensors which are promising candidates for routine control of functional foods.
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Cystic fibrosis: insight into CFTR pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy. Clin Biochem 2012; 45:1132-44. [PMID: 22698459 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2012.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2012] [Revised: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis is the most common life-threatening recessively inherited disease in Caucasians. Due to early provision of care in specialized reference centers and more comprehensive care, survival has improved over time. Despite great advances in supportive care and in our understanding of its pathophysiology, there is still no cure for the disease. Therapeutic strategies aimed at rescuing the abnormal protein are either being sought after or under investigation. This review highlights salient insights into pathophysiology and candidate molecules suitable for CFTR pharmacotherapy. Clinical trials using Ataluren, VX-809 and ivacaftor have provided encouraging data. Preclinical data with inhibitors of phosphodiesterase type 5, such as sildenafil and analogs, have highlighted their potential for CFTR pharmacotherapy. Because sildenafil and analogs are in clinical use for other clinical applications, research on this class of drugs might speed up the development of new therapies for CF.
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Mil-Homens D, Bernardes N, Fialho AM. The antibacterial properties of docosahexaenoic omega-3 fatty acid against the cystic fibrosis multiresistant pathogen Burkholderia cenocepacia. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012; 328:61-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02476.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Revised: 11/19/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dalila Mil-Homens
- IBB-Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering; Center for Biological and Chemical Engineering; Instituto Superior Técnico; Lisbon; Portugal
| | - Nuno Bernardes
- IBB-Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering; Center for Biological and Chemical Engineering; Instituto Superior Técnico; Lisbon; Portugal
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Njoroge SW, Laposata M, Katrangi W, Seegmiller AC. DHA and EPA reverse cystic fibrosis-related FA abnormalities by suppressing FA desaturase expression and activity. J Lipid Res 2011; 53:257-65. [PMID: 22095831 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m018101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients and models of cystic fibrosis (CF) exhibit consistent abnormalities of polyunsaturated fatty acid composition, including decreased linoleate (LA) and docosahexaenoate (DHA) and variably increased arachidonate (AA), related in part to increased expression and activity of fatty acid desaturases. These abnormalities and the consequent CF-related pathologic manifestations can be reversed in CF mouse models by dietary supplementation with DHA. However, the mechanism is unknown. This study investigates this mechanism by measuring the effect of exogenous DHA and eicosapentaenoate (EPA) supplementation on fatty acid composition and metabolism, as well as on metabolic enzyme expression, in a cell culture model of CF. We found that both DHA and EPA suppress the expression and activity of Δ5- and Δ6-desaturases, leading to decreased flux through the n-3 and n-6 PUFA metabolic pathways and decreased production of AA. The findings also uncover other metabolic abnormalities, including increased fatty acid uptake and markedly increased retroconversion of DHA to EPA, in CF cells. These results indicate that the fatty acid abnormalities of CF are related to intrinsic alterations of PUFA metabolism and that they may be reversed by supplementation with DHA and EPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah W Njoroge
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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Njoroge SW, Seegmiller AC, Katrangi W, Laposata M. Increased Δ5- and Δ6-desaturase, cyclooxygenase-2, and lipoxygenase-5 expression and activity are associated with fatty acid and eicosanoid changes in cystic fibrosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2011; 1811:431-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Mailhot G, Rabasa-Lhoret R, Moreau A, Berthiaume Y, Levy E. CFTR depletion results in changes in fatty acid composition and promotes lipogenesis in intestinal Caco 2/15 cells. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10446. [PMID: 20463919 PMCID: PMC2864762 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2010] [Accepted: 04/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Abnormal fatty acid composition (FA) in plasma and tissue lipids frequently occurs in homozygous and even in heterozygous carriers of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) mutations. The mechanism(s) underlying these abnormalities remained, however, poorly understood despite the potentially CFTR contributing role. Methodology/Principal Findings The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of CFTR depletion on FA uptake, composition and metabolism using the intestinal Caco-2/15 cell line. shRNA-mediated cftr gene silencing induced qualitative and quantitative modifications in FA composition in differentiated enterocytes as determined by gas-liquid chromatography. With the cftr gene disruption, there was a 1,5 fold increase in the total FA amount, largely attributable to monounsaturated and saturated FA compared to controls. The activity of delta-7 desaturase, estimated by the 16:1(n-7)/16:0, was significantly higher in knockdown cells and consistent with the striking elevation of the n-7 FA family. When incubated with [14C]-oleic acid, CFTR-depleted cells were capable of quick incorporation and export to the medium concomitantly with the high protein expression of L-FABP known to promote intracellular FA trafficking. Accordingly, lipoprotein vehicles (CM, VLDL, LDL and HDL), isolated from CFTR knockdown cells, exhibited higher levels of radiolabeled FA. Moreover, in the presence of [14C]-acetate, knockdown cells exhibited enhanced secretion of newly synthesized phospholipids, triglycerides, cholesteryl esters and free FA, thereby suggesting a stimulation of the lipogenic pathway. Conformably, gene expression of SREBP-1c, a key lipogenic transcription factor, was increased while protein expression of the phosphorylated and inactive form of acetylCoA carboxylase was reduced, confirming lipogenesis induction. Finally, CFTR-depleted cells exhibited lower gene expression of transcription factors (PPARα, LXRα, LXRβ and RXRα). Conclusions/Significance Collectively, our results indicate that CFTR depletion may disrupt FA homeostasis in intestinal cells through alterations in FA uptake and transport combined with stimulation of lipogenesis that occurs by an LXR/RXR-independent mechanism. These findings exclude a contributing role of CFTR in CF-associated fat malabsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Mailhot
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rémi Rabasa-Lhoret
- Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases Research Group, Institut de Recherches Cliniques and Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM)-Hôtel-Dieu, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alain Moreau
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Yves Berthiaume
- Cystic Fibrosis Clinic, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM)-Hôtel-Dieu, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Emile Levy
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail:
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