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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are expressed on all major subsets of liver cells. Both exogenous ligands derived from pathogens, and endogenous ligands that are products of cellular injury, engage these receptors and activate aspects of innate immunity. These receptors play a role in viral and parasitic infections of the liver, in ischemia-reperfusion injury, and in toxic liver damage, promoting antipathogen immunity but also hepatocellular injury and fibrogenesis. However, TLRs may also participate in negative feedback that limits tissue injury. In the complex environment of the liver, TLRs participate in pathologic cascades involving multiple cell types, manifesting their effects both through cell-autonomous actions, and via cellular crosstalk. In this paper we survey the involvement of TLRs in these diverse processes.
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2
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Brenner D, Golks A, Becker M, Müller W, Frey CR, Novak R, Melamed D, Kiefer F, Krammer PH, Arnold R. Caspase-cleaved HPK1 induces CD95L-independent activation-induced cell death in T and B lymphocytes. Blood 2007; 110:3968-77. [PMID: 17712048 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-01-071167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Life and death of peripheral lymphocytes is strictly controlled to maintain physiologic levels of T and B cells. Activation-induced cell death (AICD) is one mechanism to delete superfluous lymphocytes by restimulation of their immunoreceptors and it depends partially on the CD95/CD95L system. Recently, we have shown that hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 (HPK1) determines T-cell fate. While full-length HPK1 is essential for NF-kappaB activation in T cells, the C-terminal fragment of HPK1, HPK1-C, suppresses NF-kappaB and sensitizes toward AICD by a yet undefined cell death pathway. Here we show that upon IL-2-driven expansion of primary T cells, HPK1 is converted to HPK1-C by a caspase-3 activity below the threshold of apoptosis induction. HPK1-C selectively blocks induction of NF-kappaB-dependent antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members but not of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim. Interestingly, T and B lymphocytes from HPK1-C transgenic mice undergo AICD independently of the CD95/CD95L system but involving caspase-9. Knock down of HPK1/HPK1-C or Bim by small interfering RNA shows that CD95L-dependent and HPK1/HPK1-C-dependent cell death pathways complement each other in AICD of primary T cells. Our results define HPK1-C as a suppressor of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins and provide a molecular basis for our understanding of CD95L-independent AICD of lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Brenner
- Tumor Immunology Program, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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3
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Zucchelli S, Holler P, Yamagata T, Roy M, Benoist C, Mathis D. Defective central tolerance induction in NOD mice: genomics and genetics. Immunity 2005; 22:385-96. [PMID: 15780994 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2005.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2004] [Revised: 01/04/2005] [Accepted: 01/06/2005] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The genetic determinism of type-1 diabetes in NOD mice likely involves complementary defects in central T cell tolerance induction and peripheral immunoregulation. To study the contribution of the NOD genetic background to central tolerance, we followed the behavior of BDC2.5 clonotype thymocytes in fetal thymic organ cultures (FTOC). The NOD genetic background encodes a quantitative deficiency in the ability to delete these self-reactive thymocytes and to divert them to the CD8alphaalpha lineage. In genetic analyses, comparing NOD and B6.H2g7 FTOCs, the NOD defect incorporated the influence of several loci (notably ones on chr1 and 3). Microarray analyses assessing FTOCs from the same two strains argued that the NOD abnormality reflects the combined effects of turning down the gene expression program that provokes apoptosis and turning on a new program promoting cell survival. Intersection of the data from the two approaches points to a small set of attractive candidate genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Zucchelli
- Section on Immunology and Immunogenetics, Joslin Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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4
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Duthie MS, Kahn M, White M, Kapur RP, Kahn SJ. Critical proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions of different subsets of CD1d-restricted natural killer T cells during Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Infect Immun 2005; 73:181-92. [PMID: 15618153 PMCID: PMC538963 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.1.181-192.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2004] [Revised: 08/20/2004] [Accepted: 09/06/2004] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infects 15 to 20 million people in Latin America and causes Chagas disease, a chronic inflammatory disease with fatal cardiac and gastrointestinal sequelae. How the immune response causes Chagas disease is not clear, but during the persistent infection both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses are critical. Natural killer T (NKT) cells have been shown to regulate immune responses during infections and autoimmune diseases. We report here that during acute T. cruzi infection NKT-cell subsets provide distinct functions. CD1d(-/-) mice, which lack both invariant NKT (iNKT) cells and variant NKT (vNKT) cells, develop a mild phenotype displaying an increase in spleen and liver mononuclear cells, anti-T. cruzi antibody response, and muscle inflammation. In contrast, Jalpha18(-/-) mice, which lack iNKT cells but have vNKT cells, develop a robust phenotype involving prominent spleen, liver, and skeletal muscle inflammatory infiltrates comprised of NK, dendritic, B and T cells. The inflammatory cells display activation markers; produce more gamma interferon, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide; and show a diminished antibody response. Strikingly, most Jalpha18(-/-) mice die. Thus, in response to the same infection, vNKT cells appear to augment a robust proinflammatory response, whereas the iNKT cells dampen this response, possibly by regulating vNKT cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm S. Duthie
- Infectious Disease Research Institute, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Maria Kahn
- Infectious Disease Research Institute, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Maria White
- Infectious Disease Research Institute, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Raj P. Kapur
- Infectious Disease Research Institute, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Stuart J. Kahn
- Infectious Disease Research Institute, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
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5
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John B, Crispe IN. Passive and active mechanisms trap activated CD8+ T cells in the liver. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:5222-9. [PMID: 15100260 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.9.5222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The liver is a site where activated CD8(+) T cells are trapped and destroyed at the end of an immune response. The intrahepatic accumulation of activated murine TCR transgenic CD8(+) T cells was significantly reduced when either ICAM-1 or VCAM-1 was blocked by specific Ab. These two adhesion mechanisms account for essentially all the trapping of activated CD8(+) T cells in the mouse liver. Although the ICAM-1-mediated trapping depends on the capacity of the vasculature and/or the parenchymal cells to present Ag, the accumulation of cells through VCAM-1 does not require Ag recognition. Thus, Ags expressed by the non-bone marrow-derived cells in the liver actively cause CD8(+) T cell accumulation through TCR-activated ICAM-1 adhesion, but the liver can also passively sequester activated CD8(+) T cells that do not recognize intrahepatic Ag, through VCAM-1 adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beena John
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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6
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Murray DA, Crispe IN. TNF-α Controls Intrahepatic T Cell Apoptosis and Peripheral T Cell Numbers. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:2402-9. [PMID: 15294953 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.4.2402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
At the end of an immune response, activated lymphocyte populations contract, leaving only a small memory population. The deletion of CD8(+) T cells from the periphery is associated with an accumulation of CD8(+) T cells in the liver, resulting in both CD8(+) T cell apoptosis and liver damage. After adoptive transfer and in vivo activation of TCR transgenic CD8(+) T cells, an increased number of activated CD8(+) T cells was observed in the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver of mice treated with anti-TNF-alpha. However, caspase activity was decreased only in CD8(+) T cells in the liver, not in those in the lymphoid organs. These results indicate that TNF-alpha is responsible for inducing apoptosis in the liver and suggest that CD8(+) T cells escaping this mechanism of deletion can recirculate into the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie A Murray
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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7
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Roelofs-Haarhuis K, Wu X, Gleichmann E. Oral Tolerance to Nickel Requires CD4+ Invariant NKT Cells for the Infectious Spread of Tolerance and the Induction of Specific Regulatory T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:1043-50. [PMID: 15240692 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.2.1043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Previously, oral administration of nickel to C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) mice was shown to render both their splenic T cells and APCs (i.e., T cell-depleted spleen cells) capable of transferring nickel tolerance to naive syngeneic recipients. Moreover, sequential adoptive transfer experiments revealed that on transfer of tolerogenic APCs and immunization, the naive T cells of the recipients differentiated into regulatory T (Treg) cells. Here, we demonstrate that after oral nickel treatment Jalpha18(-/-) mice, which lack invariant NKT (iNKT) cells, were not tolerized and failed to generate Treg cells. However, transfer of APCs from those Jalpha18(-/-) mice did tolerize WT recipients. Hence, during oral nickel administration, tolerogenic APCs are generated that require iNKT cell help for the induction of Treg cells. To obtain this help, the tolerogenic APCs must address the iNKT cells in a CD1-restricted manner. When Jalpha18(-/-) mice were used as recipients of cells from orally tolerized WT donors, the WT Treg cells transferred the tolerance, whereas WT APCs failed to do so, although they proved tolerogenic on transfer to WT recipients. However, Jalpha18(-/-) recipients did become susceptible to the tolerogenicity of transferred WT APCs when they were reconstituted with IL-4- and IL-10-producing CD4(+) iNKT cells. We conclude that CD4(+) iNKT cells are required for the induction of oral nickel tolerance and, in particular, for the infectious spread of tolerance from APCs to T cells. Once induced, these Treg cells, however, can act independently of iNKT cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Roelofs-Haarhuis
- Institut für Umweltmedizinische Forschung (IUF), Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Christopher K, Mueller TF, Liang Y, Finn PW, Perkins DL. Modulation of gene expression by alloimmune networks following murine heart transplantation. Mol Genet Genomics 2004; 271:687-96. [PMID: 15138889 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-004-1013-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2004] [Accepted: 03/31/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The objective of our study was to analyze gene expression profiles in a complex in vivo model of solid organ transplantation, and to investigate the effects of single-gene deletions on alloimmunity. Using algorithms to generate dendrograms and self-organizing maps, we differentiated the alloimmune profiles of 16 transgenic knockout mouse strains, and identified subsets of genes that correlate with the duration of graft survival and provide candidates for prognostic and diagnostic indicators following transplantation in our model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Christopher
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, PBB 170, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Dong H, Zhu G, Tamada K, Flies DB, van Deursen JMA, Chen L. B7-H1 determines accumulation and deletion of intrahepatic CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Immunity 2004; 20:327-36. [PMID: 15030776 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(04)00050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2003] [Revised: 01/16/2004] [Accepted: 02/04/2004] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Upon systemic activation by antigens, CD8(+), but not CD4(+), T cells selectively accumulate and undergo apoptosis in the liver, a mechanism associated with the induction of hepatic tolerance and chronic infection. The molecular basis for CD8(+) T cell preference in this process is unknown. We prepared B7-H1-deficient mice by gene targeting and found spontaneous accumulation of CD8(+) T cells in the liver while CD4(+) T cell levels remained normal. Moreover, antigen-driven CD8(+) T cells proliferated normally while apoptotic levels during the contraction phase was selectively impaired in the liver, leading to accelerated hepatocyte damage in experimental autoimmune hepatitis. Therefore, B7-H1 is a key protein selectively regulating the accumulation and deletion of intrahepatic CD8(+) T cells and may also contribute to inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and tolerance in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haidong Dong
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Godfrey DI, MacDonald HR, Kronenberg M, Smyth MJ, Van Kaer L. NKT cells: what's in a name? Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4:231-7. [PMID: 15039760 DOI: 10.1038/nri1309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 929] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dale I Godfrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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11
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Abstract
The T-cell biology of the liver is unlike that of any other organ. The local lymphocyte population is enriched in natural killer (NK) and NKT cells, which might have crucial roles in the recruitment of circulating T cells. A large macrophage population and the efficient trafficking of dendritic cells from sinusoidal blood to lymph promote antigen trapping and T-cell priming, but the local presentation of antigen causes T-cell inactivation, tolerance and apoptosis. These local mechanisms might result from the need to maintain immunological silence to harmless antigenic material in food. The overall bias of intrahepatic T-cell responses towards tolerance might account for the survival of liver allografts and for the persistence of some liver pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Nicholas Crispe
- The David H Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.
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12
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Sfondrini L, Besusso D, Zoia MT, Rodolfo M, Invernizzi AM, Taniguchi M, Nakayama T, Colombo MP, Ménard S, Balsari A. Absence of the CD1 molecule up-regulates antitumor activity induced by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:151-8. [PMID: 12077240 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.1.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The role of NKT cells on antitumor activity of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) was evaluated by peritumoral injections of CpG-ODNs in s.c. melanoma-bearing mice of strains differing in the number of NKT cells (athymic nude mice, recombination-activating gene(-/-)/transgenic V(alpha)14/Vbeta8.2 mice that generate NKT cells; J(alpha)281(-/-) mice and CD1(-/-) mice, which both have a strongly reduced number of NKT cells; and C57BL/6 wild-type mice). Tumor growth was significantly inhibited in strains enriched or depleted of NKT cells. The two murine strains having a reduced number of NKT cells differed significantly in the CpG-dependent tumor growth inhibition: in J(alpha)281(-/-) mice this inhibition was superimposable to that observed in C57BL/6 mice, while in CD1(-/-) mice the inhibition was dramatic. The increased tumor inhibition in CD1(-/-) correlated with a significantly higher ratio of IFN-gamma-IL-4 production in response to CpG as compared with C57BL/6 and J(alpha)281(-/-) mice. Experiments in which preparations of APCs and lymphocytes of the three strains were mixed showed that in the presence of APCs not expressing CD1, the production of CpG-ODN-induced type 1 cytokines was higher. Phenotype analysis of IFN-gamma- and IL-4-producing cells revealed that the differences between CD1(-/-) and C57BL/6 in the production of these two cytokines were mainly due to CD3(+) T lymphocytes. These data point to a regulatory role for the CD1 molecule in antitumor activity induced by danger signals, independently of V(alpha)14 NKT cells. The identification of a CD1-dependent suppressive subpopulation(s) might have important implications for the study of tolerance in the context of cancer, autoimmunity, and transplantation.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/immunology
- Antigens, CD1/genetics
- Antigens, CD1/physiology
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Homeodomain Proteins/genetics
- Immunophenotyping
- Injections, Intralesional
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interleukin-4/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/prevention & control
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Nude
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/deficiency
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Up-Regulation/genetics
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Sfondrini
- Molecular Targeting Unit, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, Milan, Italy
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13
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Abstract
The liver has emerged as an organ with distinct immunological properties. In this review, we summarize evidence that shows that the liver can remove apoptotic, or non-apoptotic but activated, CD8+ T cells from the circulation and induce apoptosis in these activated T cells by either active or passive mechanisms. Hepatitis viruses, particularly hepatitis C virus, often establish persistent infection. We review evidence that suggests that these viruses exploit intrahepatic tolerance mechanisms to protect themselves from immune attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Park
- The David H Smith Center for VaccineBiology and Immunology, The University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
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Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E, Takedatsu H, Blumberg RS, Bhan AK. Chronic intestinal inflammatory condition generates IL-10-producing regulatory B cell subset characterized by CD1d upregulation. Immunity 2002; 16:219-30. [PMID: 11869683 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(02)00274-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 711] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
B cells possess a variety of immune functions that are involved in normal and abnormal immune responses, including autoimmune disorders. Through murine models of intestinal inflammation, we here demonstrate a B cell subset that is induced in gut-associated lymphoid tissues and is characterized by CD1d upregulation. This B cell subset appears under a chronic inflammatory environment, produces IL-10, and suppresses progression of intestinal inflammation by downregulating inflammatory cascades associated with IL-1 upregulation and STAT3 activation rather than by altering polarized T helper responses. This study indicates that B cells, by producing cytokines such as IL-10, can act as regulatory cells in immunologically mediated inflammatory reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Mizoguchi
- Immunopathology Unit, Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Priatel JJ, Utting O, Teh HS. TCR/self-antigen interactions drive double-negative T cell peripheral expansion and differentiation into suppressor cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:6188-94. [PMID: 11714779 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.11.6188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mature CD4-CD8- alphabeta+ T cells (DNTC) in the periphery of TCR transgenic mice are resistant to clonal deletion in cognate Ag-expressing (Ag+) mice. Previously, we have characterized DNTC populations bearing the alloreactive 2C TCR in Ag-free (Ag-) and Ag+ mice. Despite appearing functionally anergic when challenged with cognate Ag in vitro, Ag-experienced DNTC exhibit markers of activation/memory, a lowered threshold of activation, ex vivo cytolytic activity, and the ability to rapidly secrete IFN-gamma. Remarkably, these memory-like DNTC also possess potent immunoregulatory properties, competing effectively for bystander-produced IL-2 and suppressing autoreactive CD8+ T cell proliferation via a Fas/FasL-dependent cytolytic mechanism. The fact that DNTC recovered from Ag+ mice possess markers and attributes characteristic of naive CD8+ T cells that have undergone homeostasis-induced proliferation suggested that they may be derived from a similar peripheral expansion process. Naive DNTC adoptively transferred into Ag-bearing hosts rapidly acquire markers and functional attributes of DNTC that have continually developed in the presence of Ag. Thus, the peripheral selection and maintenance of such autoreactive cells may serve to negatively regulate potential autoimmune T cell responses.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Autoantigens/biosynthesis
- Autoantigens/metabolism
- Autoantigens/physiology
- Biomarkers/analysis
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Communication/genetics
- Cell Communication/immunology
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Coculture Techniques
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- H-2 Antigens/biosynthesis
- H-2 Antigens/metabolism
- H-2 Antigens/physiology
- Homeostasis/genetics
- Homeostasis/immunology
- Immunologic Memory/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- Mice, Inbred MRL lpr
- Mice, Transgenic
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/physiology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Priatel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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